In poultry production systems, feed cost represents up to 70% of the total cost of production (Martínez et al. 2020Martínez,
Y., Letona, C. & Valdivié, M. 2020. "Growth performance of dekalb
white® egg-laying pullets fed discard corn grain". International Journal of Poultry Science, 19(10): 493-497, ISSN: 1682-8356, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3923/ijps.2020.493.497.).
On the other hand, the cost of raw materials used in the formulation
has risen due to increasing demand for biofuels and the global economic
crisis, mainly in developing countries, which have directly influenced
on profitability of poultry industry (Hejdysz et al. 2020Hejdysz,
M., Kaczmarek, S.A., Kubiś, M., Wiśniewska, Z., Peris, S., Budnik, S.
& Rutkowski, A. 2020. "The effect of protease and Bacillus licheniformis on nutritional value of pea, faba bean, yellow lupin and narrow-leaved lupin in broiler chicken diets". British Poultry Science, 61(3): 1-7, ISSN: 0007-1668, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00071668.2020.1716303.).
Therefore, it is urgent to find low-cost alternative feedstuffs to
replace conventional feed resources, like corn and soybean meals for
poultry birds with the aim of ensuring animals that produce quality food
for consumers and achieving significant economic benefits (Valdivié et al. 2020Valdivié, N.M., Martínez, A.Y., Mesa, F.O., Botello, L.A., Betancur, H.C. & Velázquez, M.B. 2020. "Review of Moringa oleifera as forage meal (leaves plus stems) intended for the feeding of non-ruminant animals". Animal Feed Science and Technology, 260: 114338, ISSN: 0377-8401, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2019.114338.).
In
developing countries where corn and soybean meal are scarce,
agricultural byproducts can be affordable for using as feed material (Gkarane et al. 2020Gkarane,
V., Ciulu, M., Altmann, B.A., Schmitt, A.O. & Mörlein, D. 2020.
"The effect of algae or insect supplementation as alternative protein
sources on the volatile profile of chicken meat". Foods, 9(9): 1-15, ISSN: 2304-8158, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9091235.). Palm kernel meal (PKM) (Elaeis guineensis Jacq) has been identified as one of the most demanded alternative feed ingredients by poultry producers (Abdollahi 2016Abdollahi,
M.R. 2016. "Influence of palm kernel meal inclusion and exogenous
enzyme supplementation on growth performance, energy utilization, and
nutrient digestibility in young broilers". Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences, 29(4): 539-548, ISSN: 1011-2367, DOI: https://doi.org/10.5713/ajas.15.0224.).
Generally, PKM has an average crude protein, crude fat and
metabolizable energy (ME) contents from 120 to 160 g/kg, 40 to 90 g/kg
and 1816 to 2653 kcal/kg, respectively (Ramachandran et al. 2007Ramachandran,
S., Singh, S.K., Larroche, C., Soccol, C.R. & Pandey, A. 2007. "Oil
cakes and their biotechnological applications-A review". Bioresource Technology, 98(10): 2000-2009, ISSN: 0960-8524, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2006.08.002. and FEDNA 2010FEDNA
(Fundación Española Desarrollo Nutrición Animal). 2010. Tablas FEDNA de
composición y valor nutritivo de alimentos para la fabricación de
piensos compuestos. 3rd Ed. de Blas, C., Mateos, G.G., García-Rebollar,
P. (eds). Fundación Española para el Desarrollo de la Nutrición Animal,
Madrid, España, pp. 244-286.). Although PKM is a good
energy source for poultry, it is deficient in essential amino acids,
such as lysine, methionine, and tryptophan (Sulabo et al. 2013Sulabo,
R.C., Ju, W.S. & Stein, H.H. 2013. "Amino acid digestibility and
concentration of digestible and metabolizable energy in copra meal, palm
kernel expellers, and palm kernel meal fed to growing pigs". Journal of Animal Science, 91(3): 1391-1399, ISSN: 0021-8812, DOI: https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2012-5281.).
On the other hand, a high crude fibre content (140 to 350 g/kg) could
limit the use of PKM as the main protein source in poultry feed (FEDNA 2010FEDNA
(Fundación Española Desarrollo Nutrición Animal). 2010. Tablas FEDNA de
composición y valor nutritivo de alimentos para la fabricación de
piensos compuestos. 3rd Ed. de Blas, C., Mateos, G.G., García-Rebollar,
P. (eds). Fundación Española para el Desarrollo de la Nutrición Animal,
Madrid, España, pp. 244-286. and Son et al. 2014Son,
A.R., Hyun, Y., Htoo, J.K. & Kim, B.G. 2014. "Amino acid
digestibility in copra expellers and palm kernel expellers by growing
pigs". Animal Feed Science and Technology, 187(1): 91-97, ISSN: 0377-8401, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2013.09.015.).
The
use of PKM in broiler diets has been widely studied with or without
supplementation of enzymes, synthetic amino acids, and fishmeal (Sulabo et al. 2013Sulabo,
R.C., Ju, W.S. & Stein, H.H. 2013. "Amino acid digestibility and
concentration of digestible and metabolizable energy in copra meal, palm
kernel expellers, and palm kernel meal fed to growing pigs". Journal of Animal Science, 91(3): 1391-1399, ISSN: 0021-8812, DOI: https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2012-5281., Abdollahi 2016Abdollahi,
M.R. 2016. "Influence of palm kernel meal inclusion and exogenous
enzyme supplementation on growth performance, energy utilization, and
nutrient digestibility in young broilers". Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences, 29(4): 539-548, ISSN: 1011-2367, DOI: https://doi.org/10.5713/ajas.15.0224.; Chen et al. 2018Chen,
W.L., Jahromi, M.F., Candyrine, S.C.L., Liang, J.B., Abdullah, N. &
Idrus, Z. 2018. "Enzymatic hydrolysis drastically reduces fibre content
of palm-kernel expeller but without enhancing performance in broiler
chickens". Animal Production Science, 59(12): 2131-2137, ISSN: 1836-0939, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1071/AN17860.).
However, the optimum level of inclusion of PKM in broiler chicken
rations has not been completely elaborated because of difference in the
commercial line of chickens used, environmental aspects and
characteristics of the PKM used such as the origin, oil extraction
process and nutrient composition (Jang et al. 2013Jang,
Y.D. & Kim, Y.Y. 2013. " Energy values and apparent total tract
digestibility coefficients of copra meal and palm kernel meal fed to
growing pigs". Canadian Journal of Animal Science, 93(4): 517-521, ISSN: 0008-3984, DOI: https://doi.org/10.4141/cjas2013-025. and Huang et al. 2018Huang,
C., Zhang, S., Stein, H.H., Zhao, J., Li, D. & Lai, C. 2018.
"Effect of inclusion level and adaptation duration on digestible energy
and nutrient digestibility in palm kernel meal fed to growing-finishing
pigs". Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences, 31(3): 395-402, ISSN: 1011-2367, DOI: https://doi.org/10.5713/ajas.17.0515.).
Due
to its chemical composition, PKM has been classified as a protein
source for animal feed. In this study, it is hypothesized that an
adequate inclusion of PKM in broiler diets replacing corn meal and
imported soybean meal in isoproteic and isoenergetic diets could satisfy
the nutritional requirements of poultry birds without affecting the
bioproductive indicators and the edible portion yields with a positive
economic balance. The objective of this research was to determine the
growth performance, carcass traits and economic response of Cobb 500®
male broiler upon feeding of palm kernel with traditional feed.
Materials and MethodsLocation.
The experiment was approved by the Animal Care and Use Committee of
Technology Transfer Research Center. The experiment was carried out at
the Poultry Experimental Unit “San Marcos”, Pichincha province, Pedro
Vicente Maldonado Canton, Ecuador. The experimental location is 1600 m
above sea level, has a humid subtropical climate with an average annual
temperature between 24 to 28 0C and mean annual rainfall of 2800 mm.
Birds and diets.
In this study, 120 one-day-old Cobb 500® male broiler chickens, average
weight of 40.10 g (SD 0.28 a were randomly distributed to four dietary
treatments and fed the rations for a period of 47 days in four phases
(starter, 0 to 8 days; grower, 9 to 18 days; finisher 1, 19 to 28 days
and finisher 2, 29 to 47 days). There were 30 chickens per treatment
with three repetitions and 10 birds per repetition. The four isoproteic
and isoenergetic diets were formulated according to Rostagno (2005)Rostagno,
H.S. 2005. Tabelas brasileiras para aves e suínos. Composição de
alimentos e exigências nutricionais". 2nd Ed. Ed. Universidad Federal de
Vicosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil, Available: https://www.agencia.cnptia.embrapa.br/Repositorio/Tabelas+brasileiras+-+Rostagno_000gy1tqvm602wx7ha0b6gs0xfzo6pk5.pdf, [Consulted: May 1st, 2020].
for broiler Cobb 500® with different levels of the PKM, with a control
diet (T0) and other diets contain 100 g/kg (T1), 200 g/kg (T2) and 300
g/kg (T3) of PKM (table 1). The experimental diets were formulated according to research by Vieira et al. (2008)Vieira,
S. L., Oyarzabal, O.A., Freitas, D.M., Berres, J., Pena, J.E.M.,
Torres, C.A. & Coneglian, J.L.B. 2008. "Performance of broilers fed
diets supplemented with sanguinarine-like alkaloids and organic acids". Journal of Applied Poultry Research, 17(1): 128-133, ISSN: 1056-6171, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3382/japr.2007-00054., Sulabo et al. (2013)Sulabo,
R.C., Ju, W.S. & Stein, H.H. 2013. "Amino acid digestibility and
concentration of digestible and metabolizable energy in copra meal, palm
kernel expellers, and palm kernel meal fed to growing pigs". Journal of Animal Science, 91(3): 1391-1399, ISSN: 0021-8812, DOI: https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2012-5281. and Modesto et al. (2020)Modesto,
E.E., Sebastian, A.V., Martínez, Y., Valdivié, M. & Rodríguez, R.
2020. "Effects of inclusion levels of discarded corn grain on growth
performance, edible portions and economic response in broilers". International Journal of Poultry Science, 19(8): 372-379, ISSN: 1682-8356, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3923/ijps.2020.372.379.. The metabolizable energy of palm kernel meal (9.19 MJ/kg) reported by Vargas and Zumbado (2003)Vargas,
E. & Zumbado, M. 2003. "Composición de los subproductos de la
industrialización de la palma africana utilizados en la alimentación
animal en Costa Rica".Agronomía Costarricense, 27(1): 7-18, ISSN: 2215-2202, Available: https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/436/43627101.pdf, [Consulted: May 1st, 2020]. was taken into account.
Table 1.
Diet formulation, nutritional composition, and cost of the experimental diets (as-fed basis)
| Ingredients (g/kg) | Experimental diets |
|---|
| Starter (0 to 21 days) | Grower (22 to 35 days) | Finisher (36 to 47 days) |
|---|
| T0 | T1 | T2 | T3 | T0 | T1 | T2 | T3 | T0 | T1 | T2 | T3 |
|---|
| Palm kernel meal | 0.00 | 100.00 | 200.00 | 300.00 | 0.00 | 100.00 | 200.00 | 300.00 | 0.00 | 100.00 | 200.00 | 300.00 |
| Corn meal | 531.40 | 426.23 | 320.24 | 215.78 | 535.11 | 432.46 | 329.98 | 228.64 | 565.79 | 461.88 | 355.22 | 248.77 |
| Soybean cake meal | 402.44 | 383.31 | 364.60 | 345.00 | 380.00 | 358.80 | 336.93 | 320.00 | 350.00 | 329.80 | 312.00 | 294.00 |
| Premixture1 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 3.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 |
| Salt | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 3.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 |
| Soybean oil | 24.30 | 49.00 | 74.00 | 98.50 | 45.70 | 70.00 | 94.60 | 117.30 | 48.10 | 72.60 | 97.50 | 122.40 |
| Choline chloride | 0.70 | 0.70 | 0.70 | 0.70 | 0.70 | 0.70 | 0.70 | 0.70 | 0.70 | 0.70 | 0.70 | 0.70 |
| DL-Methionine | 2.26 | 2.36 | 2.46 | 2.52 | 1.90 | 1.97 | 2.12 | 2.14 | 1.51 | 1.58 | 1.66 | 1.75 |
| L-Lysine HCL | 0.00 | 0.50 | 0.90 | 1.30 | 0.00 | 0.47 | 0.97 | 1.32 | 0.00 | 0.45 | 0.84 | 1.24 |
| Calcium carbonate | 10.10 | 9.70 | 9.30 | 8.80 | 7.70 | 7.10 | 6.60 | 6.20 | 5.50 | 5.10 | 4.60 | 4.20 |
| Dicalcium phosphate | 18.80 | 18.20 | 17.80 | 17.40 | 18.89 | 18.50 | 18.10 | 17.70 | 18.40 | 17.89 | 17.48 | 16.94 |
| Cost (kg/t) | 0.558 | 0.526 | 0.494 | 0.461 | 0.563 | 0.530 | 0.498 | 0.457 | 0.561 | 0.529 | 0.497 | 0.465 |
| Calculated contribution (g/kg) | | | | | | | | |
| Crude protein | 210.00 | 210.00 | 210.00 | 210.00 | 200.00 | 200.00 | 200.00 | 200.00 | 190.0 | 190.0 | 190.0 | 190.0 |
| Methionine | 5.50 | 5.50 | 5.50 | 5.50 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 4.50 | 4.50 | 4.50 | 4.50 |
| Lysine | 11.90 | 11.90 | 11.90 | 11.90 | 11.29 | 11.29 | 11.29 | 11.29 | 10.57 | 10.57 | 10.57 | 10.57 |
| Crude fibre | 35.09 | 49.13 | 63.16 | 77.20 | 34.26 | 48.29 | 62.31 | 76.57 | 34.01 | 48.05 | 62.09 | 76.14 |
| Crude fat | 66.60 | 91.52 | 116.71 | 141.46 | 87.18 | 111.76 | 136.63 | 159.85 | 90.09 | 114.84 | 139.93 | 165.03 |
| Metabolizable energy (MJ/kg) | 12.55 | 12.55 | 12.55 | 12.55 | 13.18 | 13.18 | 13.18 | 13.18 | 13.39 | 13.39 | 13.39 | 13.39 |
| Calcium | 10.00 | 10.00 | 10.00 | 10.00 | 9.00 | 9.00 | 9.00 | 9.00 | 8.00 | 8.00 | 8.00 | 8.00 |
| Available phosphorus | 4.01 | 4.01 | 4.01 | 4.01 | 4.00 | 4.00 | 4.00 | 4.00 | 3.90 | 3.90 | 3.90 | 3.90 |
1Addition
per kg of starter diet: Mn, 100 mg; I, 1 mg; Fe, 40 mg; Zn, 100 mg; Se,
0.15 mg; Cu, 10 mg; vitamin A, 15,000 IU; vitamin D3, 5000 UI; vitamin
E, 75 mg; vitamin K3, 4 mg; vitamin B1, 3 mg; vitamin B2, 8 mg; vitamin
B6, 5 mg; vitamin B12, 0.016 mg; biotin, 0.2 mg; folic acid, 2 mg;
nicotic acid, 60 mg; pantothenic acid, 18 mg; choline, 1800 mg. Addition
per kg of grower diet: Mn, 100 mg; I, 1 mg; Fe, 40 mg; Zn, 100 mg; Se,
0.15 mg; Cu, 10 mg; vitamin A, 12,000 IU; vitamin D3, 5000 UI; vitamin
E, 50 mg; vitamin K3, 3 mg; vitamin B1, 2 mg; vitamin B2, 6 mg; vitamin
B6, 4 mg; vitamin B12, 0.016 mg; biotin, 0.2 mg; folic acid, 1.75 mg;
nicotic acid, 60 mg; pantothenic acid, 18 mg; choline, 1600 mg. Addition
per kg of finisher diet: Mn, 100 mg; I, 1 mg; Fe, 40 mg; Zn, 100 mg;
Se, 0.15 mg; Cu, 10 mg; vitamin A ,12,000 IU; vitamin D3, 5000 UI;
vitamin E, 50 mg; vitamin K3, 2 mg; vitamin B1, 2 mg; vitamin B2, 5 mg;
vitamin B6, 3 mg; vitamin B12, 0.011 mg; biotin, 0.05 mg; folic acid,
1.5 mg; nicotic acid, 35 mg; pantothenic acid, 18 mg; choline, 1600 mg.
Experimental conditions. Birds were raised in floor pens on wood shavings with a stocking density of 10 birds/m2. Feed and water were offered ad libitum,
in tube feeders and nipple drinkers, respectively. During the first
three weeks, supplemental heat was provided by use of an electric
heater. A lighting system with 12 hours of artificial light provided by a
60-watt electric bulb and 12 hours of natural light was used. In the
hatchery, birds were vaccinated against fowl pox, infectious bronchitis,
Newcastle disease and infectious bursal disease. No medication was
added to the feed, nor therapeutic drugs were used during the
experimental period.
Performance parameters. Body weight
and feed intake of birds in each pen were determined on day 47. Feed
conversion ratio was calculated as the amount of feed intake to gain one
kg body weight. Livability was determined as the difference between the
initial number of birds and recorded mortality. To determine the intake
of nutrients and metabolizable energy, the accumulated feed intake and
the nutritional contributions of the experimental diets were taken into
account (Modesto et al., 2020Modesto,
E.E., Sebastian, A.V., Martínez, Y., Valdivié, M. & Rodríguez, R.
2020. "Effects of inclusion levels of discarded corn grain on growth
performance, edible portions and economic response in broilers". International Journal of Poultry Science, 19(8): 372-379, ISSN: 1682-8356, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3923/ijps.2020.372.379.).
Carcass traits.
At day 47, 10 birds per treatment was sacrificed by bleeding of the
jugular vein after six hours of feed fasting (water was offered ad libitum)
to collect samples. Carcass traits were determined by weighing the
birds before slaughter. After which carcass, breast, leg, total viscera
and abdominal fat were weighed (Martínez et al. 2019Martínez,
Y., Ayala, L., Hurtado, C., Más, D. & Rodríguez, R. 2019. "Effects
of dietary supplementation with red algae powder (Chondrus crispus) on growth performance, carcass traits, lymphoid organ weights and intestinal pH in broilers". Brazilian Journal of Poultry Science, 21(4): 1-7, ISSN: 1516-635X, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/1806-9061-2019-1015.).
The relative weight of the edible portions was calculated by the
formula: Relative weight = (Absolute weight x 100)/final body weight.
Chemical analyses. Dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), crude fat, crude fibre (CF) and nitrogen-free extract contents were determined by AOAC (2006)AOAC
(Official Methods of Analysis). 2006. 18th Ed. Ed. Association of
Official Analytical Chemists. Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA, ISBN:
978-0935584776.. Calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and
potassium (K) contents were determined by atomic absorption with a GBC
Scientific Equipment XplorAA Dual, Australia, 2014, whereas phosphorus
(P) and sulfur (S) contents were determined by visible
spectrophotometry-colorimetry using a Spectronics-USA spectrophotometer,
model Genesys, USA, 2006, range: 325 to 1100 nm. All chemical analyses
were performed by triplicate.
Cost-benefit analysis. To
determine the cost of experimental diets, the prices of PKM (0.11
USD/kg), corn meal (0.50 USD/kg), soybean meal (0.60 g/kg), vitamins and
trace minerals premix (4.75 USD/kg), salt (0.20 USD/kg), plant oil
(0.80 USD/kg), choline chloride (2.57 USD/kg), DL-methionine (1.24
USD/kg), L-lysine HCL (2.57 USD/kg), calcium carbonate (0.02 USD/kg) and
dicalcium phosphate (0.08 USD/kg) were taken into account at the time
of the trial. For the cost-benefit calculation, the
economic-mathematical method was used with techniques of grouping,
comparison and calculation of magnitudes (Modesto et al. 2020Modesto,
E.E., Sebastian, A.V., Martínez, Y., Valdivié, M. & Rodríguez, R.
2020. "Effects of inclusion levels of discarded corn grain on growth
performance, edible portions and economic response in broilers". International Journal of Poultry Science, 19(8): 372-379, ISSN: 1682-8356, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3923/ijps.2020.372.379.).
For the calculation of the feed cost per kg of live weight, carcass,
breast and leg, the average diet cost in the different phases of
production (starter, grower, finisher 1 and finisher 2) were used.
Statistical analysis.
Results of PKM nutritional composition were expressed as descriptive
statistics (X, SD). Data obtained from growth performance, carcass trait
and cost benefit analyses were subjected to analysis of variance
(ANOVA) according to a completely randomized design (three repetitions
per treatment). Duncan (1955)Duncan, D.B. 1955. "Multiple Range and Multiple F Tests". Biometrics, 11(1): 1-42, ISSN: 0006-341X, DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3001478. multiple range test was used to determine differences between means. SPSS statistical program, version 23 (2014)SPSS. 2014. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (version 23). SPSS Inc. Chicago, Illinois, USA. was used.
Results and Discussion
Table 2 shows the chemical composition of PKM, which varies in relation to other studies due to the origin of the raw material (Adli et al. 2020Adli,
D.N., Sjofjan, O., Natsir, M.H., Nuningtyas, Y.F., Sholikah, N.U. &
Marbun, A.C. 2020. "The effect of replacing maize with fermented palm
kernel meal (FPKM) on broiler performance". Livestock Research for Rural Development, 32, Article #109, ISSN: 0121-3784, Available: http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd32/7/meser32109.html, [Consulted: May 1st, 2020]., da Silva et al. 2020da
Silva, R.S., Lopes, J.R.T., do Espírito, S.R.V., dos Santos, M.A.S.,
Cordeiro, C.A.M., Yoshioka, E.T.O., Corrêa, R.R., Martins, H.J. & de
Lourenço, J.J.B. 2020. "Palm kernel meal (Elaeis guineensis) as a substitute for corn (Zea mays) in diets of Tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum) ". Aquaculture Research, 51(8): 1-9, ISSN: 1355-557X, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/are.14671. and Purnama et al. 2020Purnama,
K.O., Setyaningsih, D., Hambali, E. & Taniwiryono, D. 2020.
"Processing, Characteristics, and Potential Application of Red Palm
Oil-A review". International Journal of Oil Palm, 3(2): 40-55, ISSN: 0972-5806, DOI: https://doi.org/10.35876/ijop.v3i2.47.), extraction process mechanical or chemical oil (Boateng et al. 2020Boateng,
M., Okai, D.B., Baah, J. & Donkoh, A. 2008. "Palm kernel cake
extraction and utilisation in pig and poultry diets in Ghana". Livestock Research for Rural Development, 20(7), ISSN: 0121-3784, Available: https://lrrd.cipav.org.co/lrrd20/7/boat20099.htm, [Consulted: May 1st, 2020]. and Purnama et al. 2020Purnama,
K.O., Setyaningsih, D., Hambali, E. & Taniwiryono, D. 2020.
"Processing, Characteristics, and Potential Application of Red Palm
Oil-A review". International Journal of Oil Palm, 3(2): 40-55, ISSN: 0972-5806, DOI: https://doi.org/10.35876/ijop.v3i2.47.),
variety and age of palms, latitude, altitude, precipitation,
topography, texture, soil structure, solar radiation, photoperiod,
temperature, soil fertility, among other factors (Qureshi et al. 2019Qureshi,
S.S., Nizamuddin, S., Baloch, H.A., Siddiqui, M.T.H., Mubarak, N.M.
& Griffin, G. J. 2019. "An overview of OPS from oil palm industry as
feedstock for bio-oil production". Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery, 9(4): 827-841, ISSN: 2190-6815, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-019-00381-w., Bhagya et al. 2020Bhagya,
H.P., Babu, B.K., Gangadharappa, P.M., Naika, M.B., Satish, D. &
Mathur, R.K. 2020. "Identification of QTLs in oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) using SSR markers through association mapping". Journal of Genetics, 99(1): 1-10, ISSN: 0973-7731, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12041-020-1180-4. and Rakesh et al. 2020Rakesh,
S.S., Davamani, V., Banu, K.S.P., Maragatham, S., Lakshmanan, A.,
Parameswari, E. & Velmurugan, M. 2020. "Assessing the Potential of Elaeis guineensis Plantations for Carbon Sequestration and Fresh Fruit Bunch Yield in Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu". Current Journal of Applied Science and Technology, 39(6): 80-90, ISSN: 2231-0843, DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/cjast/2020/v39i630562.). The PKM showed a crude protein of 167.9 g/ kg, favorable as a source of vegetable protein for broiler chickens (Sugiharto et al. 2019Sugiharto,
S., Yudiarti, T., Isroli, I., Widiastuti, E., Wahyuni, H.I. &
Sartono, T.A. 2019. "Recent advances in the incorporation of leaf meals
in broiler diets". Livestock Research for Rural Development, 31(7), ISSN: 0121-3784, Available: http://lrrd.cipav.org.co/lrrd31/7/sgu_u31109.html, [Consulted: May 1st, 2020]., Wickramasuriya et al. 2019Wickramasuriya,
S., Kim, E., Shin, T.K., Cho, H.M., Kim, B., Patterson, R., Young-Joo,
Y., Park, S., Balasubramanian, B. & Heo, J.M. 2019.
"Multi-carbohydrase addition into a corn-soybean meal diet containing
wheat and wheat by products to improve growth performance and nutrient
digestibility of broiler chickens". Journal of Applied Poultry Research, 28(2): 399-409, ISSN: 1056-6171, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3382/japr/pfz002. and Vatanparast et al. 2020Vatanparast,
H., Islam, N., Shafiee, M. & Ramdath, D.D. 2020. "Increasing
plant-based meat alternatives and decreasing red and processed meat in
the diet differentially affect the diet quality and nutrient intakes of
Canadians". Nutrients, 12(7): 1-14, ISSN: 2072-6643, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12072034.), although the levels of crude fiber should be noted of 201.1 g/kg that could affect the digestibility of nutrients (Oladokun et al. 2016Oladokun,
A.A., Wahab, A., Rahman, N. & Suparjo, M. 2016. "Prospect of
maximising palm kernel cake utilization for livestock and poultry in
Malaysia: A review". Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare, 6(13): 107-113, ISSN: 2225-093X., Goh et al. 2020Goh,
Y.M., Noordin, M.M. & Liang, J.B. 2020. "Extrusion enhances
apparent metabolizable energy, ileal protein and amino acid
digestibility of palm kernel cake in broilers". Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences, ISSN: 1011-2367, DOI: https://doi.org/10.5713/ajas.19.0964.) and the growth of these birds (Abdollahi et al. 2019Abdollahi,
M.R., Zaefarian, F., Hunt, H., Anwar, M.N., Thomas, D.G. &
Ravindran, V. 2019. "Wheat particle size, insoluble fiber sources and
whole wheat feeding influence gizzard musculature and nutrient
utilization to different extents in broiler chickens". Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition, 103(1): 146-161, ISSN: 1439-0396, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jpn.13019. y Saadatmand et al. 2019Saadatmand,
N., Toghyani, M. & Gheisari, A. 2019. "Effects of dietary fiber and
threonine on performance, intestinal morphology and immune responses in
broiler chickens". Animal Nutrition, 5(3): 248-255, ISSN: 2405-6383, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aninu.2019.06.001.).
Table 2.
Chemical composition of palm kernel meal (as-dry basis)
| Chemical composition (g/kg) | Mean | Standard deviation |
|---|
| Dry matter | 915.0 | 0.52 |
| Crude protein | 167.9 | 0.15 |
| Crude fat | 73.30 | 0.23 |
| Crude fibre | 201.10 | 0.18 |
| Ashes | 102.80 | 0.31 |
| Nitrogen-free extract | 454.90 | 0.56 |
| Calcium | 3.80 | 0.23 |
| Phosphorus | 5.10 | 0.15 |
| Magnesium | 3.10 | 0.13 |
| Potassium | 8.20 | 0.19 |
| Sulfur | 1.70 | 0.01 |
PKM: TYSAISA Plant, Agricultural Extractor Río Manso EXA S.A, Km 51 Santo Domingo, La Concordia, Quininde, Ecuador.
PKM was progressively included (100, 200 and 300 g kg) in
isoprotein and isoenergetic diets for the nutrition of Cobb 500® broiler
chickens (table 2).
It was possible to partially replace corn and soybean meal, with a high
contribution of CF and GF as PKM increased, although the contributions
of methionine, lysine, calcium and available phosphorus were supplied
for this species according to Rostagno (2005)Rostagno,
H.S. 2005. Tabelas brasileiras para aves e suínos. Composição de
alimentos e exigências nutricionais". 2nd Ed. Ed. Universidad Federal de
Vicosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil, Available: https://www.agencia.cnptia.embrapa.br/Repositorio/Tabelas+brasileiras+-+Rostagno_000gy1tqvm602wx7ha0b6gs0xfzo6pk5.pdf, [Consulted: May 1st, 2020]..
Table 3 shows
the growth performance of broilers feed with an increasing levels of
palm kernel meal (PKM). Throughout the experimental period, the
viability did not affect by dietary treatments (100%), which indicates
that PKM is not toxic or lethal antinutritional factor in current
research. This observation is supported by other studies using high
levels of PKM (Sulabo et al. 2013Sulabo,
R.C., Ju, W.S. & Stein, H.H. 2013. "Amino acid digestibility and
concentration of digestible and metabolizable energy in copra meal, palm
kernel expellers, and palm kernel meal fed to growing pigs". Journal of Animal Science, 91(3): 1391-1399, ISSN: 0021-8812, DOI: https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2012-5281. and Abdollahi 2016Abdollahi,
M.R. 2016. "Influence of palm kernel meal inclusion and exogenous
enzyme supplementation on growth performance, energy utilization, and
nutrient digestibility in young broilers". Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences, 29(4): 539-548, ISSN: 1011-2367, DOI: https://doi.org/10.5713/ajas.15.0224.).
In addition, the inclusion with 100 g/kg (T1) was not statistically
different from T0 (P˃0.05), although T2 and T3 did show a lower result
in the growth indicators and daily feed intake per bird (P <0.05),
although the intake of fiber and fat was different in all the
experimental treatments (P <0.05). There is no significant effect of
T1 treatment on feed intake, nutrient intakes, feed conversion ratio and
final live weight of the birds compared with control, whereas crude
fibre and crude fat intake progressively increased with PKM (table 3).
However, T2 treatment with PKM in the diet at 200 g/kg increased (P
< 0.05) feed intake and feed conversion ratio but had no effect on
the final live weight of birds. On the other hand, T3 treatment
increased feed intake and feed conversion ratio and reduced the final
live weight of the birds.
Table 3.
Live performance of Cobb-500® broilers fed different palm kernel meal levels
| Items | Inclusion of PKM (g/kg) | SEM± | P-value |
|---|
| T0 | T1 | T2 | T3 |
|---|
| Feed intake (g/bird/day) | 139.75b | 143.74ab | 145.15a | 145.79a | 1.307 | 0.044 |
| Feed conversion ratio (kg/kg) | 2.08b | 2.15b | 2.30a | 2.41a | 0.041 | 0.002 |
| Final live weight (g) | 2778.67a | 2760.00a | 2604.20ab | 2495.57b | 31.743 | 0.035 |
| Dry matter intake (g/bird/day) | 129.59b | 133.28ab | 134.27a | 134.99a | 1.206 | 0.050 |
| Metabolizable energy intake (kcal/bird/day) | 435.03b | 447.46ab | 451.83a | 453.85a | 4.068 | 0.044 |
| Crude protein intake (g/bird/day) | 27.41b | 28.19ab | 28.47a | 28.59a | 0.51 | 0.044 |
| Methionine intake (g/bird/day) | 0.67b | 0.69ab | 0.69ab | 0.70a | 0.006 | 0.044 |
| Lysine intake (g/bird/day) | 1.54b | 1.58ab | 1.59a | 1.60a | 0.014 | 0.044 |
| Calcium intake (g/bird/day) | 1.20b | 1.24ab | 1.25a | 1.26a | 0.011 | 0.045 |
| Available phosphorus (g/bird/day) | 0.64b | 0.66ab | 0.66a | 0.67a | 0.006 | 0.046 |
| Crude fibre intake (g/bird/day) | 4.74d | 6.97c | 9.15b | 11.32a | 0.058 | <0.001 |
| Crude fat intake (g/bird/day) | 13.93d | 15.59c | 16.99b | 18.34a | 0.138 | <0.001 |
a,b,c,dMeans followed by different letters in each row as significantly different at P < 0.05 (Duncan 1955Duncan, D.B. 1955. "Multiple Range and Multiple F Tests". Biometrics, 11(1): 1-42, ISSN: 0006-341X, DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3001478.)
It has been observed a negative effect on body weight gain and
feed conversion as the inclusion level of PKM was increased in the feed
intake (table 3).
However, 100 g/kg of PKM in the feed intake resulted in similar body
weight gain and feed conversion as the control group, with a good intake
of essential amino acids and of crude fiber lower than the inclusion of
20 and 30% in the diet (table 3),
which maintained the normal biological cycle of these birds.
Apparently, the current study showed that this level of PKM inclusion
was appropriate for use in all stages of broiler production.
The dilution of energy by dietary fibre (Savón et al. 2007Savón,
L., Scull, I. & Martínez, M. 2007. "Integral foliage meal for
poultry feeding. Chemical composition, physical properties and
phytochemical screening". Cuban Journal of Agricultural Science, 41(2): 359-361, ISSN: 2079-3480.)
could increase the voluntary feed intake observed in diets with 200 and
300 g/kg of PKM. This increase in food intake due to the high content
of dietary fiber has previously been observed to compensate for the loss
of endogenous nutrients (Savón et al. 2007Savón,
L., Scull, I. & Martínez, M. 2007. "Integral foliage meal for
poultry feeding. Chemical composition, physical properties and
phytochemical screening". Cuban Journal of Agricultural Science, 41(2): 359-361, ISSN: 2079-3480. and Rodríguez et al. 2020Rodríguez, B., Martínez-Pérez, M., Vives, Y., Pérez, O. & Ayala, L. 2020. "Evaluación de la harina de frutos de Roystonea regia para la alimentación de pollos de engorde". Livestock Research for Rural Development, 32(7), ISSN: 0121-3784. Available: http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd32/7/brodri32118.html, [Consulted: May 1st, 2020].). Likewise, Rogel et al. (1987)Rogel, A.M., Annison, E.F., Bryden, W.L. & Balnave, D. 1987. "The digestion of wheat starch in broiler chickens". Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 38(3): 639-649, ISSN: 1444-9838, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1071/AR9870639.
found that a higher voluntary feed intake of chickens was associated
with an increase in insoluble fiber in the diet, which is necessary to
compensate for the reduction in the absorption of nutrients in the
intestinal lumen and the restriction of the mobility of the minerals.
Also, a higher inclusion of PKM (up to 300 g/kg) resulted in more use of
soybean oil in the diets (table 2) necessary to balance the ME requirements in the diets (Latshaw 2008Latshaw, J.D. 2008. "Daily energy intake of broiler chickens is altered by proximate nutrient content and form of the diet". Poultry Science, 87(1): 89-95, ISSN: 0032-5791, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.2007-00173., Lefevre et al. 2012Lefevre,
M., Mensink, R.P., Etherton, K.P., Petersen, B., Smith, K. &
Flickinger, B.D. 2012. "Predicted changes in fatty acid intakes, plasma
lipids, and cardiovascular disease risk following replacement of trans
fatty acid containing soybean oil with application-appropriate
alternatives". Lipids, 47(10): 951-962, ISSN: 0024-4201, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11745-012-3705-y. and Martínez et al. 2015Martínez,
Y., Carrión, Y., Rodríguez, R., Valdivié, M., Olmo, C., Betancur, C.
& Liu, G. 2015. "Growth performance, organ weights and some blood
parameters in replacement laying pullets fed with increasing levels of
wheat bran". Brazilian Journal of Poultry Science, 17(3): 347-354, ISSN: 1516-635X, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/1516-635X1703347-354.).
In this sense, T2 and T3 with high contribution and intakes of CF and crude fat (table 2)
could affect the live weight and feed conversion. Dietary fiber in this
feed ingredient was characterized by indigestible compounds by
non-ruminant animals (Daud and Jarvis 1992Daud, M.J. & Jarvis, M.C. 1992. "Mannans of oil palm kernels". Phytochemistry, 31(2): 463-464, ISSN: 0031-9422, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(92)90017-K.). Likewise, Savón et al. (2007)Savón,
L., Scull, I. & Martínez, M. 2007. "Integral foliage meal for
poultry feeding. Chemical composition, physical properties and
phytochemical screening". Cuban Journal of Agricultural Science, 41(2): 359-361, ISSN: 2079-3480. and Iyayi et al. (2005)Iyayi,
E.A., Ogunsola, O. & Ijaya, R. 2005. ""Effect of three sources of
fiber and period of feeding on the performance, carcass measures, organs
relative weight and meat quality in broilers". International Journal of Poultry Science, 4(9): 695-700, ISSN: 1682-8356. Available: http://ir.library.ui.edu.ng/bitstream/123456789/4716/1/%2819%29%20ui_art_iyayi_effect_2005.pdf, [Consulted: May 1st, 2020].
showed that excess fibre reduces nutrient digestibility, energy
retention and mineral movement, which affects growth performance. Aya et al. (2013)Aya,
V.E., Ayanwale, B.A., Ijaiya, A.T. & Aremu, A. 2013. "Performance
and nutrient digestibility in broiler chicks as influenced by
multienzyme addition to starter diets containing palm kernel meal". Biotechnology in Animal Husbandry, 29(1): 93-104, ISSN: 1450-9156, DOI: https://doi.org/10.2298/BAH1301093A.
found that diets containing up to 400 g/kg of PKM reduced the
digestibility of DM, CP, crude fat, ash and nitrogen-free extract. These
authors justified it to a higher contribution and crude fibre intake.
Results of Mardhati et al. (2011)Mardhati,
M., Wong, H.K. & Noraini, S. 2011. "Growth performance and carcass
quality of broilers fed with palm kernel meal-based rations". Journal of Tropical Agriculture and Food Science, 39(2): 157-166, ISSN: 1394-9829, Available: http://jtafs.mardi.gov.my/jtafs/39-2/Growth%20performance%20and%20carcass%20quality%20of%20broilers.pdf, [Consulted: May 1st, 2020]. and Bello et al. (2011)Bello,
K.M., Oyawoye, E.O., Bogoro, S.O. & Dass, U.D. 2011. "Performance
of broilers fed varying levels of palm kernel cake". International Journal of Poultry Science, 10(4): 290-294, ISSN: 1682-8356, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3923/ijps.2011.290.294.,
who included PKM up to 200 and 450 g/kg in broiler (Ross 308® and Cobb
500®) diets, respectively, found similar results in the bio-productive
indicators. Ezieshi et al. (2008)Ezieshi,
E.V. & Olomu, J.M. 2008. "Nutritional evaluation of palm kernel
meal types: 2. Effects on live performance and nutrient retention in
broiler chicken diets". African Journal of Biotechnology, 7(8): 1171-1175, ISSN: 1684-5315, Available: https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajb/article/view/58640, [Consulted: May 1st, 2020].
reported a deterioration of body weight and feed efficiency in a study
of broilers with 300 and 325 g/kg of PKM in the starter and finisher
diets, therefore these authors recommended that when including PKM at
increasing levels in animal diets, it should be supplemented with
essential amino acids. However, other studies are needed to corroborate
the interaction of biomolecules and fibre contributions in PKM diets (Mardhati et al. 2011Mardhati,
M., Wong, H.K. & Noraini, S. 2011. "Growth performance and carcass
quality of broilers fed with palm kernel meal-based rations". Journal of Tropical Agriculture and Food Science, 39(2): 157-166, ISSN: 1394-9829, Available: http://jtafs.mardi.gov.my/jtafs/39-2/Growth%20performance%20and%20carcass%20quality%20of%20broilers.pdf, [Consulted: May 1st, 2020].).
The
use of palm kernel meal on broiler diets did not affect the edible
portions yields (%). However, T0 and T1 exerts significant effects on
the absolute weight of the carcass, breast, leg, and viscera compared
significantly with the T2 and T3 (P < 0.05; table 4).
Inclusion of PKM at 100 g/kg in the diet partially replaced corn and
the soybean meal, but did not suppress the yield of the edible portions
in broiler. This could be because this treatment guaranteed a stable
intake of nutrients, especially of amino acids such as lysine and
methionine that influences the synthesis of breast in relation to other
muscles and in growth of connective tissue, respectively (Berri et al. 2008Berri,
C., Besnard, J. & Relandeau, C. 2008. "Increasing dietary lysine
increases final pH and decreases drip loss of broiler breast meat". Poultry Science, 87(3): 480-484, ISSN: 0032-5791, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.2007-00226.).
Table 4.
Weight and yield of edible parts and total viscera of Cobb-500® broilers fed different levels of palm kernel meal
| Items | Inclusion of PKM (g/kg) | SEM± | P-value |
|---|
| T0 | T1 | T2 | T3 |
|---|
| Carcass weight (g) | 2026.83a | 1991.33ab | 1963.50b | 1891.50c | 12.832 | <0.001 |
| Carcass yield (%) | 73.20 | 73.12 | 72.88 | 71.97 | 0.358 | 0.629 |
| Breast weight (g) | 451.00a | 432.50ab | 421.90b | 399.17c | 4.940 | <0.001 |
| Breast yield (%) | 22.25 | 21.74 | 21.49 | 21.11 | 0.193 | 0.205 |
| Leg weight (g) | 656.50a | 634.00a | 612.50ab | 566.53b | 10.103 | 0.005 |
| Leg yield (%) | 32.39 | 31.87 | 31.19 | 29.98 | 0.458 | 0.287 |
| Total viscera weight (g) | 156.33a | 151.00ab | 148.23b | 140.47c | 1.654 | 0.002 |
| Total viscera yield (%) | 5.65 | 5.54 | 5.50 | 5.34 | 0.052 | 0.216 |
| Abdominal fat (g) | 72.60 | 72.60 | 71.02 | 70.67 | 0.846 | 0.122 |
| Abdominal fat (%) | 2.62 | 2.67 | 2.64 | 2.67 | 0.044 | 0.856 |
a,b,cMeans followed by different letters in each row as significantly different at p<0.05 (Duncan 1955Duncan, D.B. 1955. "Multiple Range and Multiple F Tests". Biometrics, 11(1): 1-42, ISSN: 0006-341X, DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3001478.).
Carcass is considered here with no viscera, head, or feet. Breast, leg,
and total viscera yields are expressed as carcass percentage.
However, T2 and T3 decreased the yield of edible portions that
might be related to a high concentration of fibre that suppressed feed
conversion and body weight gain of the birds (Riber and Tahamtani 2020Riber,
A.B. & Tahamtani, F.M. 2020. "Motivation for feeding in broiler
breeder pullets fed different types of restricted high-fibre diets". Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 230(2020): 1-11, ISSN: 0168-1591, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2020.105048.). High fibre content in diets decreases digestion and absorption of nutrients, and may inflame the small intestine (Fasuyi 2020Fasuyi,
A. 2020. "Biotechnological upgrade of high fibre-low protein industrial
plant by-products in broiler diets: Carcass and organs
characteristics". Asian Journal of Advances in Agricultural Research, 13(1): 30-38, ISSN: 2456-8864, DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/ajaar/2020/v13i130096.) thereby negatively influencing protein deposition in body tissues. Results of the current study are supported by those of Beloshapka et al. (2016)Beloshapka,
A.N., Buff, P.R., Fahey, G.C. & Swanson, K.S. 2016. "Compositional
analysis of whole grains, processed grains, grain co-products, and other
carbohydrate sources with applicability to pet animal nutrition". Foods, 5(2): 1-16, ISSN: 2304-8158, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/foods5020023.,
who found significant reductions (P < 0.05) in the absolute weight
of the carcass when increasing the fibre levels on broiler diets.
The
high variability in the chemical composition of PKM and the many
variants for its formulation within the diet directly influences growth
performance responses and the carcass traits. Many authors have argued
on role of the concentration of fibre in PKM. In this study, negative
effects on growth performance responses and the carcass traits were
observed when using PKM with 201.1 g/kg of CF at an inclusion level
superior to 100 g/kg in the diet. Okeudo et al. (2006)Okeudo,
N.J., Onyike, I.L., Okoli, C.V. & Chielo, I.L. 2006. "Production
performance, meat quality and feed cost implications of utilizing high
levels of palm kernel cake in broiler finisher diets". International Journal of Poultry Science, 5(12): 1160-1163, ISSN: 1682-8356, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3923/ijps.2006.1160.1163.
used PKM with lower CF content and indicated that the inclusion of 350
and 300 g/kg of PKM did not negatively affect the relative weight of the
organs and the carcass. On the contrary, García et al. (1999)García, C.A., Gernat, A.G. & Murillo, J.G. 1999. "The effect of four levels of palm kernel meal in broiler diets". Ceiba, 40(2): 291-295, ISSN: 2225-6687, Available: https://revistas.zamorano.edu/index.php/CEIBA/article/view/446, [Consulted: May 1st, 2020]. reported that the inclusion of 100 g/kg of PKM with 249.0 g/kg of CF reduced the weight and yield of the carcass and breast.
Table 5 shows
that an increase in PKM levels in the broiler diets decreased (P <
0.05) the cost of the feed, the feed cost to produce one kg of live
weight, the carcass, breast and leg, with economic utilities. At
present, the economic feasibility study is essential when alternative
feeds are used in animal diets that substitute imported raw materials
such as corn and soybean meals since feed represents the highest portion
of the cost of production. For the most part, researchers agree that
PKM reduces the feed cost/bird with considerable economic gain, although
these gains will be influenced by the cost of other raw materials in
each production area (Onwudike 1986Onwudike,
O.C. 1986. "Palm kernel meal as a feed for poultry. 3. Replacement of
groundnut cake by palm kernel meal in broiler diets". Animal Feed Science and Technology, 16(3): 195-202, ISSN: 0377-8401, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0377-8401(86)90110-0.).
Table 5.
Cost-benefit analysis of Cobb-500® broilers fed different levels of palm kernel meal (47 days)
| Items | Inclusion of PKM (g/kg) | SEM± | P-value |
|---|
| | T0 | T1 | T2 | T3 | |
|---|
| Cost of feed consumed (USD) | 3.24a | 3.11b | 2.84c | 2.51d | 0.029 | 0.005 |
| Feed cost/kg of live weight (USD) | 1.19a | 1.14ab | 1.11b | 1.02c | 0.022 | <0.001 |
| Utility/control (USD) | - | 0.05 | 0.08 | 0.17 | - | - |
| Feed cost/kg of carcass (USD) | 1.60a | 1.56a | 1.45b | 1.33c | 0.014 | <0.001 |
| Utility/control (USD) | - | 0.04 | 0.15 | 0.27 | - | - |
| Feed cost/kg of breast (USD) | 7.19a | 7.19a | 6.72b | 6.30c | 0.066 | <0.001 |
| Utility/control (USD) | - | 0.00 | 0.47 | 0.89 | - | - |
| Feed cost/kg of leg (USD) | 4.94a | 4.90a | 4.63b | 4.44c | 0.045 | <0.001 |
| Utilily/control (USD) | - | 0.04 | 0.31 | 0.50 | - | - |
a,b,c,dMeans followed by different letters in each row as significantly different at p<0.05 (Duncan 1955Duncan, D.B. 1955. "Multiple Range and Multiple F Tests". Biometrics, 11(1): 1-42, ISSN: 0006-341X, DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3001478.)
Thus, PKM can be considered as a strategy of food self-sufficiency. Shakila et al. (2012)Shakila,
S., Reddy, P.S., Reddy, P.V., Ramana, J.V. & Ravi, A. 2012. "Effect
of palm kernel meal on the performance of broilers". Tamil Nadu Journal of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, 8(4): 227-234, ISSN: 0973-2942.
used 75 g/kg of PKM in diets for broilers and found a lower feed cost
per kg of live weight gain compared to control. Likewise, Onwudike (1986)Onwudike,
O.C. 1986. "Palm kernel meal as a feed for poultry. 3. Replacement of
groundnut cake by palm kernel meal in broiler diets". Animal Feed Science and Technology, 16(3): 195-202, ISSN: 0377-8401, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0377-8401(86)90110-0.
showed an economic efficiency by decreasing feed cost and cost
production using PKM up to 350 g/kg on broiler diets. However, although
the T2 and T3 reduced the growth performance and the edible portions (table 3 and 4), the cost reduction (table 2) of these diets caused a higher economic utility as also observed by Okeudo et al. (2006)Okeudo,
N.J., Onyike, I.L., Okoli, C.V. & Chielo, I.L. 2006. "Production
performance, meat quality and feed cost implications of utilizing high
levels of palm kernel cake in broiler finisher diets". International Journal of Poultry Science, 5(12): 1160-1163, ISSN: 1682-8356, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3923/ijps.2006.1160.1163. and Onwudike (1986)Onwudike,
O.C. 1986. "Palm kernel meal as a feed for poultry. 3. Replacement of
groundnut cake by palm kernel meal in broiler diets". Animal Feed Science and Technology, 16(3): 195-202, ISSN: 0377-8401, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0377-8401(86)90110-0.. This shows that use of this alternative feed promotes economic gains in poultry production.
ConclusionsThe
results of this experiment showed that the dietary inclusion of up to
100 g/kg of palm kernel in the diet of Cobb 500® male broiler, as a
partial substitute for corn and soybean meal, did not negatively affect
the growth performance, carcass traits and economic benefit. In
addition, the inclusion levels of 300 g/kg of the palm kernel meal had
the best cost-benefit analysis.
En los sistemas de producción avícola, el costo del alimento representa hasta el 70% del costo total de producción (Martínez et al. 2020Martínez,
Y., Letona, C. & Valdivié, M. 2020. "Growth performance of dekalb
white® egg-laying pullets fed discard corn grain". International Journal of Poultry Science, 19(10): 493-497, ISSN: 1682-8356, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3923/ijps.2020.493.497.).
Por otro lado, el costo de las materias primas utilizadas en la
formulación ha aumentado debido a la creciente demanda de
biocombustibles y a la crisis económica mundial, principalmente en los
países en desarrollo, que influyen directamente en la rentabilidad de la
industria avícola (Hejdysz et al. 2020Hejdysz,
M., Kaczmarek, S.A., Kubiś, M., Wiśniewska, Z., Peris, S., Budnik, S.
& Rutkowski, A. 2020. "The effect of protease and Bacillus licheniformis on nutritional value of pea, faba bean, yellow lupin and narrow-leaved lupin in broiler chicken diets". British Poultry Science, 61(3): 1-7, ISSN: 0007-1668, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00071668.2020.1716303.).
Por lo tanto, es urgente encontrar alimentos alternativos de bajo costo
para reemplazar los recursos alimentarios convencionales, como las
harinas de maíz y soja para aves de corral, para garantizar animales que
produzcan alimentos de calidad para los consumidores y lograr
importantes beneficios económicos (Valdivié et al. 2020Valdivié, N.M., Martínez, A.Y., Mesa, F.O., Botello, L.A., Betancur, H.C. & Velázquez, M.B. 2020. "Review of Moringa oleifera as forage meal (leaves plus stems) intended for the feeding of non-ruminant animals". Animal Feed Science and Technology, 260: 114338, ISSN: 0377-8401, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2019.114338.).
En
los países en vías de desarrollo donde la harina de maíz y de soya son
escasas, los subproductos agrícolas pueden ser asequibles para su uso
como materia prima (Gkarane et al. 2020Gkarane,
V., Ciulu, M., Altmann, B.A., Schmitt, A.O. & Mörlein, D. 2020.
"The effect of algae or insect supplementation as alternative protein
sources on the volatile profile of chicken meat". Foods, 9(9): 1-15, ISSN: 2304-8158, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9091235.). La harina de frutos de palma aceitera (PKM) (Elaeis guineensis Jacq) se ha identificado como uno de los ingredientes de alimentos alternativos más demandados por los productores avícolas (Abdollahi 2016Abdollahi,
M.R. 2016. "Influence of palm kernel meal inclusion and exogenous
enzyme supplementation on growth performance, energy utilization, and
nutrient digestibility in young broilers". Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences, 29(4): 539-548, ISSN: 1011-2367, DOI: https://doi.org/10.5713/ajas.15.0224.).
Generalmente, la PKM tiene un contenido promedio de proteína cruda,
grasa cruda y energía metabolizable (EM) de 120 a 160 g/ kg, de 40 a 90
g/kg y 1816 a 2653 kcal/kg, respectivamente (Ramachandran et al. 2007Ramachandran,
S., Singh, S.K., Larroche, C., Soccol, C.R. & Pandey, A. 2007. "Oil
cakes and their biotechnological applications-A review". Bioresource Technology, 98(10): 2000-2009, ISSN: 0960-8524, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2006.08.002. y FEDNA 2010FEDNA
(Fundación Española Desarrollo Nutrición Animal). 2010. Tablas FEDNA de
composición y valor nutritivo de alimentos para la fabricación de
piensos compuestos. 3rd Ed. de Blas, C., Mateos, G.G., García-Rebollar,
P. (eds). Fundación Española para el Desarrollo de la Nutrición Animal,
Madrid, España, pp. 244-286.). Aunque la PKM es una buena
fuente de energía para pollos, tiene deficiencia de aminoácidos
esenciales, como lisina, metionina y triptófano (Sulabo et al. 2013Sulabo,
R.C., Ju, W.S. & Stein, H.H. 2013. "Amino acid digestibility and
concentration of digestible and metabolizable energy in copra meal, palm
kernel expellers, and palm kernel meal fed to growing pigs". Journal of Animal Science, 91(3): 1391-1399, ISSN: 0021-8812, DOI: https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2012-5281.).
Por otro lado, el alto contenido de fibra cruda (140 a 350 g/kg) podría
limitar el uso de PKM como la principal fuente de proteína en la
alimentación de aves de corral (FEDNA 2010FEDNA
(Fundación Española Desarrollo Nutrición Animal). 2010. Tablas FEDNA de
composición y valor nutritivo de alimentos para la fabricación de
piensos compuestos. 3rd Ed. de Blas, C., Mateos, G.G., García-Rebollar,
P. (eds). Fundación Española para el Desarrollo de la Nutrición Animal,
Madrid, España, pp. 244-286. y Son et al. 2014Son,
A.R., Hyun, Y., Htoo, J.K. & Kim, B.G. 2014. "Amino acid
digestibility in copra expellers and palm kernel expellers by growing
pigs". Animal Feed Science and Technology, 187(1): 91-97, ISSN: 0377-8401, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2013.09.015.).
La
utilización de PKM en dietas para pollos de engorde se ha estudiado
ampliamente con o sin suplementación de enzimas, aminoácidos sintéticos y
harina de pescado (Sulabo et al. 2013Sulabo,
R.C., Ju, W.S. & Stein, H.H. 2013. "Amino acid digestibility and
concentration of digestible and metabolizable energy in copra meal, palm
kernel expellers, and palm kernel meal fed to growing pigs". Journal of Animal Science, 91(3): 1391-1399, ISSN: 0021-8812, DOI: https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2012-5281., Abdollahi 2016Abdollahi,
M.R. 2016. "Influence of palm kernel meal inclusion and exogenous
enzyme supplementation on growth performance, energy utilization, and
nutrient digestibility in young broilers". Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences, 29(4): 539-548, ISSN: 1011-2367, DOI: https://doi.org/10.5713/ajas.15.0224. y Chen et al. 2018Chen,
W.L., Jahromi, M.F., Candyrine, S.C.L., Liang, J.B., Abdullah, N. &
Idrus, Z. 2018. "Enzymatic hydrolysis drastically reduces fibre content
of palm-kernel expeller but without enhancing performance in broiler
chickens". Animal Production Science, 59(12): 2131-2137, ISSN: 1836-0939, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1071/AN17860.).
Sin embargo, el nivel óptimo de inclusión de PKM en las raciones de
pollos de engorde no se ha elaborado por completo debido a la diferencia
en la línea comercial de los pollos utilizados, los aspectos
ambientales y las características del PKM utilizado como origen, proceso
de extracción de aceite y composición de nutrientes (Jang et al. 2013Jang,
Y.D. & Kim, Y.Y. 2013. " Energy values and apparent total tract
digestibility coefficients of copra meal and palm kernel meal fed to
growing pigs". Canadian Journal of Animal Science, 93(4): 517-521, ISSN: 0008-3984, DOI: https://doi.org/10.4141/cjas2013-025. y Huang et al. 2018Huang,
C., Zhang, S., Stein, H.H., Zhao, J., Li, D. & Lai, C. 2018.
"Effect of inclusion level and adaptation duration on digestible energy
and nutrient digestibility in palm kernel meal fed to growing-finishing
pigs". Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences, 31(3): 395-402, ISSN: 1011-2367, DOI: https://doi.org/10.5713/ajas.17.0515.).
Debido
a su composición química, la PKM se ha clasificado como fuente proteica
para la alimentación animal. En este estudio se plantea la hipótesis de
que una adecuada inclusión de PKM en las dietas de pollos de engorde en
sustitución de la harina de maíz y de soya importadas en dietas
isoproteicas e isoenergéticas podría satisfacer los requerimientos
nutricionales de las aves sin afectar los indicadores bioproductivos y
los rendimientos de la porción comestible con un balance económico
positivo. Por tanto, el objetivo de esta investigación fue determinar el
rendimiento de crecimiento, las características de la canal y la
respuesta económica de pollos machos de engorde Cobb 500® al ser
alimentado con frutos de palma aceitera con alimento tradicional.
Materiales y MétodosLocalización.
El experimento se aprobó por el Comité Institucional para el Cuidado y
Uso de Animales del Centro de Investigación de Transferencia de
Tecnología, y se realizó en la Unidad Experimental Avícola "San Marcos",
provincia de Pichincha, cantón Pedro Vicente Maldonado, Ecuador. La
ubicación experimental está a 1600 m sobre el nivel del mar, tiene un
clima subtropical húmedo con una temperatura media anual de entre 24 a
28 0C y una precipitación media anual de 2800 mm.
Aves y dietas.
En este estudio, 120 pollos machos de engorde Cobb 500® de un día de
edad, con un peso promedio de 40.10 g (DE 0.28) se distribuyeron al azar
en cuatro tratamientos y se alimentaron con las raciones durante un
período de 47 días en cuatro fases (iniciador: 0 a 8 días de crecimiento
de 9 a 18 días; finalizador 1 de 19 a 28 días y finalizador 2: de 29 a
47 días). Se emplearon 30 pollos por tratamiento con tres repeticiones y
10 aves por repetición. Las cuatro dietas isoproteicas e isoenergéticas
se formularon de acuerdo con Rostagno (2005)Rostagno,
H.S. 2005. Tabelas brasileiras para aves e suínos. Composição de
alimentos e exigências nutricionais". 2nd Ed. Ed. Universidad Federal de
Vicosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil, Available: https://www.agencia.cnptia.embrapa.br/Repositorio/Tabelas+brasileiras+-+Rostagno_000gy1tqvm602wx7ha0b6gs0xfzo6pk5.pdf, [Consulted: May 1st, 2020].
para pollos de engorde Cobb 500® con diferentes niveles de PKM, con una
dieta control (T0) y otras que contenían 100 g/kg (T1), 200 g/kg (T2) y
300 g/kg (T3) de PKM (tabla 1). Las dietas experimentales se formularon de acuerdo con investigaciones de Vieira et al. (2008)Vieira,
S. L., Oyarzabal, O.A., Freitas, D.M., Berres, J., Pena, J.E.M.,
Torres, C.A. & Coneglian, J.L.B. 2008. "Performance of broilers fed
diets supplemented with sanguinarine-like alkaloids and organic acids". Journal of Applied Poultry Research, 17(1): 128-133, ISSN: 1056-6171, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3382/japr.2007-00054., Sulabo et al. (2013)Sulabo,
R.C., Ju, W.S. & Stein, H.H. 2013. "Amino acid digestibility and
concentration of digestible and metabolizable energy in copra meal, palm
kernel expellers, and palm kernel meal fed to growing pigs". Journal of Animal Science, 91(3): 1391-1399, ISSN: 0021-8812, DOI: https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2012-5281. y Modesto et al. (2020)Modesto,
E.E., Sebastian, A.V., Martínez, Y., Valdivié, M. & Rodríguez, R.
2020. "Effects of inclusion levels of discarded corn grain on growth
performance, edible portions and economic response in broilers". International Journal of Poultry Science, 19(8): 372-379, ISSN: 1682-8356, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3923/ijps.2020.372.379.. Se consideró la energía metabolizable de la harina de frutos de palma aceitera (9.19 MJ/kg) que reportaron Vargas y Zumbado (2003)Vargas,
E. & Zumbado, M. 2003. "Composición de los subproductos de la
industrialización de la palma africana utilizados en la alimentación
animal en Costa Rica".Agronomía Costarricense, 27(1): 7-18, ISSN: 2215-2202, Available: https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/436/43627101.pdf, [Consulted: May 1st, 2020]..
Table 1.
Diet formulation, nutritional composition, and cost of the experimental diets (as fed basis)
| Ingredients (g/kg) | Experimental diets |
|---|
|
|
|
|
|---|
| T0 | T1 | T2 | T3 | T0 | T1 | T2 | T3 | T0 | T1 | T2 | T3 |
|---|
| Palm kernel meal | 0.00 | 100.00 | 200.00 | 300.00 | 0.00 | 100.00 | 200.00 | 300.00 | 0.00 | 100.00 | 200.00 | 300.00 |
| Corn meal | 531.40 | 426.23 | 320.24 | 215.78 | 535.11 | 432.46 | 329.98 | 228.64 | 565.79 | 461.88 | 355.22 | 248.77 |
| Soybean cake meal | 402.44 | 383.31 | 364.60 | 345.00 | 380.00 | 358.80 | 336.93 | 320.00 | 350.00 | 329.80 | 312.00 | 294.00 |
| Premixture1 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 3.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 |
| Salt | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 3.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 |
| Soybean oil | 24.30 | 49.00 | 74.00 | 98.50 | 45.70 | 70.00 | 94.60 | 117.30 | 48.10 | 72.60 | 97.50 | 122.40 |
| Choline chloride | 0.70 | 0.70 | 0.70 | 0.70 | 0.70 | 0.70 | 0.70 | 0.70 | 0.70 | 0.70 | 0.70 | 0.70 |
| DL-Methionine | 2.26 | 2.36 | 2.46 | 2.52 | 1.90 | 1.97 | 2.12 | 2.14 | 1.51 | 1.58 | 1.66 | 1.75 |
| L-Lysine HCL | 0.00 | 0.50 | 0.90 | 1.30 | 0.00 | 0.47 | 0.97 | 1.32 | 0.00 | 0.45 | 0.84 | 1.24 |
| Calcium carbonate | 10.10 | 9.70 | 9.30 | 8.80 | 7.70 | 7.10 | 6.60 | 6.20 | 5.50 | 5.10 | 4.60 | 4.20 |
| Dicalcium phosphate | 18.80 | 18.20 | 17.80 | 17.40 | 18.89 | 18.50 | 18.10 | 17.70 | 18.40 | 17.89 | 17.48 | 16.94 |
| Cost (kg/t) | 0.558 | 0.526 | 0.494 | 0.461 | 0.563 | 0.530 | 0.498 | 0.457 | 0.561 | 0.529 | 0.497 | 0.465 |
|
Calculated contribution (g/kg)
| | | | | | | | |
| Crude protein | 210.00 | 210.00 | 210.00 | 210.00 | 200.00 | 200.00 | 200.00 | 200.00 | 190.0 | 190.0 | 190.0 | 190.0 |
| Methionine | 5.50 | 5.50 | 5.50 | 5.50 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 4.50 | 4.50 | 4.50 | 4.50 |
| Lysine | 11.90 | 11.90 | 11.90 | 11.90 | 11.29 | 11.29 | 11.29 | 11.29 | 10.57 | 10.57 | 10.57 | 10.57 |
| Crude fibre | 35.09 | 49.13 | 63.16 | 77.20 | 34.26 | 48.29 | 62.31 | 76.57 | 34.01 | 48.05 | 62.09 | 76.14 |
| Crude fat | 66.60 | 91.52 | 116.71 | 141.46 | 87.18 | 111.76 | 136.63 | 159.85 | 90.09 | 114.84 | 139.93 | 165.03 |
| Metabolizable energy (MJ/kg) | 12.55 | 12.55 | 12.55 | 12.55 | 13.18 | 13.18 | 13.18 | 13.18 | 13.39 | 13.39 | 13.39 | 13.39 |
| Calcium | 10.00 | 10.00 | 10.00 | 10.00 | 9.00 | 9.00 | 9.00 | 9.00 | 8.00 | 8.00 | 8.00 | 8.00 |
| Available phosphorus | 4.01 | 4.01 | 4.01 | 4.01 | 4.00 | 4.00 | 4.00 | 4.00 | 3.90 | 3.90 | 3.90 | 3.90 |
1Addition
per kg of starter diet: Mn, 100 mg; I, 1 mg; Fe, 40 mg; Zn, 100 mg; Se,
0.15 mg; Cu, 10 mg; vitamin A, 15,000 IU; vitamin D3, 5000 UI; vitamin
E, 75 mg; vitamin K3, 4 mg; vitamin B1, 3 mg; vitamin B2, 8 mg; vitamin
B6, 5 mg; vitamin B12, 0.016 mg; biotin, 0.2 mg; folic acid, 2 mg;
nicotic acid, 60 mg; pantothenic acid, 18 mg; choline, 1800 mg. Addition
per kg of grower diet: Mn, 100 mg; I, 1 mg; Fe, 40 mg; Zn, 100 mg; Se,
0.15 mg; Cu, 10 mg; vitamin A, 12,000 IU; vitamin D3, 5000 UI; vitamin
E, 50 mg; vitamin K3, 3 mg; vitamin B1, 2 mg; vitamin B2, 6 mg; vitamin
B6, 4 mg; vitamin B12, 0.016 mg; biotin, 0.2 mg; folic acid, 1.75 mg;
nicotic acid, 60 mg; pantothenic acid, 18 mg; choline, 1600 mg. Addition
per kg of finisher diet: Mn, 100 mg; I, 1 mg; Fe, 40 mg; Zn, 100 mg;
Se, 0.15 mg; Cu, 10 mg; vitamin A ,12,000 IU; vitamin D3, 5000 UI;
vitamin E, 50 mg; vitamin K3, 2 mg; vitamin B1, 2 mg; vitamin B2, 5 mg;
vitamin B6, 3 mg; vitamin B12, 0.011 mg; biotin, 0.05 mg; folic acid,
1.5 mg; nicotic acid, 35 mg; pantothenic acid, 18 mg; choline, 1600 mg.
Condiciones experimentales. Las aves se criaron en
corrales de piso sobre virutas de madera con una densidad poblacional de
10 aves/m2. El alimento y el agua se ofrecieron ad libitum, en
comederos tubulares y bebederos de tetina, respectivamente. Durante las
primeras tres semanas, se proporcionó calor adicional mediante el uso de
un calentador eléctrico. Se utilizó un sistema de iluminación con 12
horas de luz artificial proporcionada por una bombilla eléctrica de 60
vatios y 12 horas de luz natural. En el criadero, las aves se vacunaron
contra la viruela aviar, la bronquitis infecciosa, la enfermedad de
Newcastle y la bursitis infecciosa. No se añadió ningún medicamento al
pienso ni se utilizaron fármacos terapéuticos durante el período
experimental.
Indicadores de comportamiento. El peso
corporal y el consumo de alimento de las aves en cada corral se
determinaron el día 47. La tasa de conversión de alimento se calculó
como la cantidad del consumo de alimento para ganar un kg de peso
corporal. La viabilidad se determinó como la diferencia entre el número
inicial de aves y la mortalidad registrada. Para determinar el aporte de
nutrientes y energía metabolizable se tuvo en cuenta el acumulado del
consumo de alimento y los aportes nutricionales de las dietas
experimentales (Modesto et al. 2020Modesto,
E.E., Sebastian, A.V., Martínez, Y., Valdivié, M. & Rodríguez, R.
2020. "Effects of inclusion levels of discarded corn grain on growth
performance, edible portions and economic response in broilers". International Journal of Poultry Science, 19(8): 372-379, ISSN: 1682-8356, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3923/ijps.2020.372.379.).
Rasgos de la canal.
Se sacrificaron 10 aves por tratamiento el día 47, por sangrado de la
vena yugular después de seis horas de ayuno alimenticio (se ofreció agua
ad libitum) para recolectar muestras. Los rasgos de la canal se
determinaron con el peso de las aves antes del sacrificio.
Posteriormente se pesaron canal, pechuga, pierna, vísceras totales y
grasa abdominal (Martínez et al. 2019Martínez,
Y., Ayala, L., Hurtado, C., Más, D. & Rodríguez, R. 2019. "Effects
of dietary supplementation with red algae powder (Chondrus crispus) on growth performance, carcass traits, lymphoid organ weights and intestinal pH in broilers". Brazilian Journal of Poultry Science, 21(4): 1-7, ISSN: 1516-635X, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/1806-9061-2019-1015.).
El peso relativo de las porciones comestibles se calculó mediante la
fórmula: Peso relativo = (Peso absoluto x 100) / peso corporal final.
Análisis químicos.
Los contenidos de materia seca (MS), proteína cruda (PC), grasa cruda,
fibra cruda (FC) y extracto libre de nitrógeno se determinaron por AOAC (2006)AOAC
(Official Methods of Analysis). 2006. 18th Ed. Ed. Association of
Official Analytical Chemists. Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA, ISBN:
978-0935584776.. Los contenidos de calcio (Ca), magnesio
(Mg) y potasio (K) se establecieron mediante absorción atómica con un
equipo GBC XplorAA Dual, Australia, 2014, mientras que los de fósforo
(P) y azufre (S) se determinaron mediante
espectrofotometría-colorimetría visible, utilizando un espectrofotómetro
Spectronics-USA, modelo Genesys, EEUU, 2006, rango: de 325 a 1100 nm.
Todos los análisis químicos se realizaron por triplicado.
Análisis costo-beneficio.
Para determinar el costo de las dietas experimentales, se tuvo en
cuenta el precio de PKM (0.11 USD/kg), harina de maíz (0.50 USD/kg),
harina de soya (0.60 USD/kg), premezcla de vitaminas y minerales traza
(4.75 USD/kg), sal (0.20 USD/kg), aceite vegetal (0.80 USD/kg), cloruro
de colina (2.57 USD/kg), DL-metionina (1.24 USD/kg), L-lisina HCl (2.57
USD/kg), carbonato de calcio (0.02 USD/kg) y fosfato dicálcico (0.08
USD/kg) en el momento del ensayo. Para el cálculo de costo-beneficio se
utilizó el método económico-matemático con técnicas de agrupamiento,
comparación y cálculo de magnitudes (Modesto et al. 2020Modesto,
E.E., Sebastian, A.V., Martínez, Y., Valdivié, M. & Rodríguez, R.
2020. "Effects of inclusion levels of discarded corn grain on growth
performance, edible portions and economic response in broilers". International Journal of Poultry Science, 19(8): 372-379, ISSN: 1682-8356, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3923/ijps.2020.372.379.).
Para calcular el costo de alimento por kg de peso vivo, canal, pechuga y
pierna, se usó el costo promedio de la dieta en las diferentes fases de
producción (iniciadora, engorda, finalizadora 1 y finalizadora 2).
Análisis estadístico.
Los resultados de la composición nutricional del PKM se expresaron como
estadística descriptiva (X, DE). Los datos obtenidos de los análisis
del comportamiento del crecimiento, rasgos de la canal y costo-beneficio
se sometieron a análisis de varianza (ANOVA) de acuerdo con un diseño
completamente aleatorizado (tres repeticiones por tratamiento). Se
utilizó la dócima Duncan (1955)Duncan, D.B. 1955. "Multiple Range and Multiple F Tests". Biometrics, 11(1): 1-42, ISSN: 0006-341X, DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3001478. para determinar las diferencias entre las medias, y el programa estadístico SPSS, versión 23 (2014)SPSS. 2014. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (version 23). SPSS Inc. Chicago, Illinois, USA..
Resultados y DiscusiónEn la tabla 2 se muestra la composición química de PKM, que varía en relación con otros estudios debido al origen de la materia prima (Adli et al. 2020Adli,
D.N., Sjofjan, O., Natsir, M.H., Nuningtyas, Y.F., Sholikah, N.U. &
Marbun, A.C. 2020. "The effect of replacing maize with fermented palm
kernel meal (FPKM) on broiler performance". Livestock Research for Rural Development, 32, Article #109, ISSN: 0121-3784, Available: http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd32/7/meser32109.html, [Consulted: May 1st, 2020]., da Silva et al. 2020da
Silva, R.S., Lopes, J.R.T., do Espírito, S.R.V., dos Santos, M.A.S.,
Cordeiro, C.A.M., Yoshioka, E.T.O., Corrêa, R.R., Martins, H.J. & de
Lourenço, J.J.B. 2020. "Palm kernel meal (Elaeis guineensis) as a substitute for corn (Zea mays) in diets of Tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum) ". Aquaculture Research, 51(8): 1-9, ISSN: 1355-557X, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/are.14671. y Purnama et al. 2020Purnama,
K.O., Setyaningsih, D., Hambali, E. & Taniwiryono, D. 2020.
"Processing, Characteristics, and Potential Application of Red Palm
Oil-A review". International Journal of Oil Palm, 3(2): 40-55, ISSN: 0972-5806, DOI: https://doi.org/10.35876/ijop.v3i2.47.), al proceso de extracción mecánico o químico aceite (Boateng et al. 2020Boateng,
M., Okai, D.B., Baah, J. & Donkoh, A. 2008. "Palm kernel cake
extraction and utilisation in pig and poultry diets in Ghana". Livestock Research for Rural Development, 20(7), ISSN: 0121-3784, Available: https://lrrd.cipav.org.co/lrrd20/7/boat20099.htm, [Consulted: May 1st, 2020]. y Purnama et al. 2020Purnama,
K.O., Setyaningsih, D., Hambali, E. & Taniwiryono, D. 2020.
"Processing, Characteristics, and Potential Application of Red Palm
Oil-A review". International Journal of Oil Palm, 3(2): 40-55, ISSN: 0972-5806, DOI: https://doi.org/10.35876/ijop.v3i2.47.),
a la variedad y edad de las palmas, latitud, altitud, precipitación,
topografía, textura, estructura del suelo, radiación solar, fotoperiodo,
temperatura, fertilidad del suelo, entre otros factores (Qureshi et al. 2019Qureshi,
S.S., Nizamuddin, S., Baloch, H.A., Siddiqui, M.T.H., Mubarak, N.M.
& Griffin, G. J. 2019. "An overview of OPS from oil palm industry as
feedstock for bio-oil production". Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery, 9(4): 827-841, ISSN: 2190-6815, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-019-00381-w., Bhagya et al. 2020Bhagya,
H.P., Babu, B.K., Gangadharappa, P.M., Naika, M.B., Satish, D. &
Mathur, R.K. 2020. "Identification of QTLs in oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) using SSR markers through association mapping". Journal of Genetics, 99(1): 1-10, ISSN: 0973-7731, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12041-020-1180-4. y Rakesh et al. 2020Rakesh,
S.S., Davamani, V., Banu, K.S.P., Maragatham, S., Lakshmanan, A.,
Parameswari, E. & Velmurugan, M. 2020. "Assessing the Potential of Elaeis guineensis Plantations for Carbon Sequestration and Fresh Fruit Bunch Yield in Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu". Current Journal of Applied Science and Technology, 39(6): 80-90, ISSN: 2231-0843, DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/cjast/2020/v39i630562.). El PKM mostró una proteína cruda de 167.9 g/kg, favorable como fuente de proteína vegetal para pollos de engorde (Sugiharto et al. 2019Sugiharto,
S., Yudiarti, T., Isroli, I., Widiastuti, E., Wahyuni, H.I. &
Sartono, T.A. 2019. "Recent advances in the incorporation of leaf meals
in broiler diets". Livestock Research for Rural Development, 31(7), ISSN: 0121-3784, Available: http://lrrd.cipav.org.co/lrrd31/7/sgu_u31109.html, [Consulted: May 1st, 2020]., Wickramasuriya et al. 2019Wickramasuriya,
S., Kim, E., Shin, T.K., Cho, H.M., Kim, B., Patterson, R., Young-Joo,
Y., Park, S., Balasubramanian, B. & Heo, J.M. 2019.
"Multi-carbohydrase addition into a corn-soybean meal diet containing
wheat and wheat by products to improve growth performance and nutrient
digestibility of broiler chickens". Journal of Applied Poultry Research, 28(2): 399-409, ISSN: 1056-6171, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3382/japr/pfz002. y Vatanparast et al. 2020Vatanparast,
H., Islam, N., Shafiee, M. & Ramdath, D.D. 2020. "Increasing
plant-based meat alternatives and decreasing red and processed meat in
the diet differentially affect the diet quality and nutrient intakes of
Canadians". Nutrients, 12(7): 1-14, ISSN: 2072-6643, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12072034.), aunque los niveles de fibra cruda se observaron de 201.1 g/kg, que podrían afectar la digestibilidad de los nutrientes (Oladokun et al. 2016Oladokun,
A.A., Wahab, A., Rahman, N. & Suparjo, M. 2016. "Prospect of
maximising palm kernel cake utilization for livestock and poultry in
Malaysia: A review". Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare, 6(13): 107-113, ISSN: 2225-093X. y Goh et al. 2020Goh,
Y.M., Noordin, M.M. & Liang, J.B. 2020. "Extrusion enhances
apparent metabolizable energy, ileal protein and amino acid
digestibility of palm kernel cake in broilers". Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences, ISSN: 1011-2367, DOI: https://doi.org/10.5713/ajas.19.0964.) y el crecimiento de estas aves (Abdollahi et al. 2019Abdollahi,
M.R., Zaefarian, F., Hunt, H., Anwar, M.N., Thomas, D.G. &
Ravindran, V. 2019. "Wheat particle size, insoluble fiber sources and
whole wheat feeding influence gizzard musculature and nutrient
utilization to different extents in broiler chickens". Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition, 103(1): 146-161, ISSN: 1439-0396, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jpn.13019. y Saadatmand et al. 2019Saadatmand,
N., Toghyani, M. & Gheisari, A. 2019. "Effects of dietary fiber and
threonine on performance, intestinal morphology and immune responses in
broiler chickens". Animal Nutrition, 5(3): 248-255, ISSN: 2405-6383, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aninu.2019.06.001.).
Table 2.
Chemical composition of palm kernel meal (as-dry basis)
| Chemical composition (g/kg) | Mean | Standard Deviation |
|---|
| Dry matter | 915.0 | 0.52 |
| Crude protein | 167.9 | 0.15 |
| Crude fat | 73.3 | 0.23 |
| Crude fibre | 201.1 | 0.18 |
| Ashes | 102.8 | 0.31 |
| Nitrogen-free extract | 454.9 | 0.56 |
| Calcium | 3.80 | 0.23 |
| Phosphorus | 5.10 | 0.15 |
| Magnesium | 3.10 | 0.13 |
| Potassium | 8.20 | 0.19 |
| Sulfur | 1.70 | 0.01 |
PKM: TYSAISA Plant, Agricultural Extractor Río Manso EXA S.A, Km 51 Santo Domingo, La Concordia, Quininde, Ecuador
El PKM se incluyó progresivamente (100, 200 y 300 g kg) en
dietas isoproteicas e isoenergéticas para la nutrición de pollos de
engorde Cobb 500® (tabla 2).
Se logró reemplazar parcialmente la harina de maíz y soya, con alto
aporte de fibra cruda y grasa cruda con el aumento de PKM, aunque los
aportes de metionina, lisina, calcio y fósforo disponible se
suministraron para esta especie según Rostagno (2005)Rostagno,
H.S. 2005. Tabelas brasileiras para aves e suínos. Composição de
alimentos e exigências nutricionais". 2nd Ed. Ed. Universidad Federal de
Vicosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil, Available: https://www.agencia.cnptia.embrapa.br/Repositorio/Tabelas+brasileiras+-+Rostagno_000gy1tqvm602wx7ha0b6gs0xfzo6pk5.pdf, [Consulted: May 1st, 2020]..
La tabla 3
muestra el comportamiento del crecimiento de pollos de engorde
alimentados con niveles crecientes de harina de palmiste (PKM). Durante
todo el período experimental, la viabilidad no se afectó por los
tratamientos (100%), lo que indica que la PKM no es un factor
antinutricional tóxico ni letal en la presente investigación. Esta
observación coincide con otros estudios que utilizan altos niveles de
PKM (Sulabo et al. 2013Sulabo,
R.C., Ju, W.S. & Stein, H.H. 2013. "Amino acid digestibility and
concentration of digestible and metabolizable energy in copra meal, palm
kernel expellers, and palm kernel meal fed to growing pigs". Journal of Animal Science, 91(3): 1391-1399, ISSN: 0021-8812, DOI: https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2012-5281. y Abdollahi 2016Abdollahi,
M.R. 2016. "Influence of palm kernel meal inclusion and exogenous
enzyme supplementation on growth performance, energy utilization, and
nutrient digestibility in young broilers". Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences, 29(4): 539-548, ISSN: 1011-2367, DOI: https://doi.org/10.5713/ajas.15.0224.).
Además, la inclusión con 100 g/kg (T1) no fue estadísticamente
diferente de T0 (P˃0.05), aunque T2 y T3 sí mostraron un resultado menor
en los indicadores de crecimiento y en consumo diario de alimento por
ave (P<0.05), aunque el consumo de fibra y grasa fue diferente en
todos los tratamientos experimentales (P<0.05). No hubo efecto
significativo del tratamiento T1 en el consumo de alimento, consumo de
nutrientes, la tasa de conversión alimenticia y el peso vivo final de
las aves en comparación con el control, mientras que el consumo de fibra
cruda y grasa cruda aumentó progresivamente con la PKM (tabla 3).
Sin embargo, el tratamiento T2 con PKM en la dieta a 200 g/kg aumentó
(P<0.05) el consumo de alimento y la tasa de conversión alimenticia,
pero no tuvo ningún efecto en el peso vivo final de las aves. Por otro
lado, el T3 aumentó el consumo de alimento y la tasa de conversión
alimenticia y redujo el peso vivo final de las aves.
Table 3.
Live performance of Cobb-500 broilers fed different levels of palm kernel meal
| Items | Inclusion of PKM (g/kg) | SEM± | P-value |
|---|
| T0 | T1 | T2 | T3 |
|---|
| Feed intake (g/bird/day) | 139.75b | 143.74ab | 145.15a | 145.79a | 1.307 | 0.044 |
| Feed conversion ratio (kg/kg) | 2.08b | 2.15b | 2.30a | 2.41a | 0.041 | 0.002 |
| Final live weight (g) | 2778.67a | 2760.00a | 2604.20ab | 2495.57b | 31.743 | 0.035 |
| Dry matter intake (g/bird/day) | 129.59b | 133.28ab | 134.27a | 134.99a | 1.206 | 0.050 |
| Metabolizable energy intake (kcal/bird/day) | 435.03b | 447.46ab | 451.83a | 453.85a | 4.068 | 0.044 |
| Crude protein intake (g/bird/day) | 27.41b | 28.19ab | 28.47a | 28.59a | 0.51 | 0.044 |
| Methionine intake (g/bird/day) | 0.67b | 0.69ab | 0.69ab | 0.70a | 0.006 | 0.044 |
| Lysine intake (g/bird/day) | 1.54b | 1.58ab | 1.59a | 1.60a | 0.014 | 0.044 |
| Calcium intake (g/bird/day) | 1.20b | 1.24ab | 1.25a | 1.26a | 0.011 | 0.045 |
| Available phosphorus (g/bird/day) | 0.64b | 0.66ab | 0.66a | 0.67a | 0.006 | 0.046 |
| Crude fibre intake (g/bird/day) | 4.74d | 6.97c | 9.15b | 11.32a | 0.058 | <0.001 |
| Crude fat intake (g/bird/day) | 13.93d | 15.59c | 16.99b | 18.34a | 0.138 | <0.001 |
a,b,c,dMeans followed by different letters in each row as significantly different at P < 0.05 (Duncan 1955Duncan, D.B. 1955. "Multiple Range and Multiple F Tests". Biometrics, 11(1): 1-42, ISSN: 0006-341X, DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3001478.)
Se ha observado efecto negativo en la ganancia de peso
corporal y la conversión alimenticia en la medida que aumenta el nivel
de inclusión de PKM en el consumo de alimento (tabla 3).
Sin embargo, la inclusión de 100 g/kg de PKM en el consumo de alimento
dieron como resultado aumento de peso corporal y conversión de alimento
similares al grupo de control, con buen consumo de aminoácidos
esenciales y consumo de fibra cruda menor que con la inclusión de 20 y
30% en la dieta (tabla 3),
lo cual mantuvo el ciclo biológico normal de estos animales.
Aparentemente, el presente estudio mostró que este nivel de inclusión de
PKM era apropiado para su uso en todas las etapas de la producción de
pollos de engorde.
La dilución de energía por fibra dietética (Savón et al. 2007Savón,
L., Scull, I. & Martínez, M. 2007. "Integral foliage meal for
poultry feeding. Chemical composition, physical properties and
phytochemical screening". Cuban Journal of Agricultural Science, 41(2): 359-361, ISSN: 2079-3480.)
podría incrementar el consumo voluntario de alimento observado en
dietas con 200 y 300 g/kg de PKM. Este aumento en el consumo de
alimentos debido al alto contenido de fibra dietética se ha observado
previamente para compensar la pérdida de nutrientes endógenos (Savón et al. 2007Savón,
L., Scull, I. & Martínez, M. 2007. "Integral foliage meal for
poultry feeding. Chemical composition, physical properties and
phytochemical screening". Cuban Journal of Agricultural Science, 41(2): 359-361, ISSN: 2079-3480. y Rodríguez et al. 2020Rodríguez, B., Martínez-Pérez, M., Vives, Y., Pérez, O. & Ayala, L. 2020. "Evaluación de la harina de frutos de Roystonea regia para la alimentación de pollos de engorde". Livestock Research for Rural Development, 32(7), ISSN: 0121-3784. Available: http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd32/7/brodri32118.html, [Consulted: May 1st, 2020].). Asimismo, Rogel et al. (1987)Rogel, A.M., Annison, E.F., Bryden, W.L. & Balnave, D. 1987. "The digestion of wheat starch in broiler chickens". Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 38(3): 639-649, ISSN: 1444-9838, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1071/AR9870639.
encontraron que el mayor consumo voluntario de alimento de los pollos
se asoció con el aumento de fibra insoluble en la dieta, lo cual es
necesario para compensar la reducción en la absorción de nutrientes en
el lumen intestinal y la restricción de la movilidad de los minerales.
Además, la mayor inclusión de PKM (hasta 300 g/kg) resultó en mayor uso
de aceite de soya en las dietas (tabla 2) necesario para equilibrar los requisitos de EM en las dietas (Latshaw 2008Latshaw, J.D. 2008. "Daily energy intake of broiler chickens is altered by proximate nutrient content and form of the diet". Poultry Science, 87(1): 89-95, ISSN: 0032-5791, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.2007-00173., Lefevre et al. 2012Lefevre,
M., Mensink, R.P., Etherton, K.P., Petersen, B., Smith, K. &
Flickinger, B.D. 2012. "Predicted changes in fatty acid intakes, plasma
lipids, and cardiovascular disease risk following replacement of trans
fatty acid containing soybean oil with application-appropriate
alternatives". Lipids, 47(10): 951-962, ISSN: 0024-4201, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11745-012-3705-y. y Martínez et al. 2015Martínez,
Y., Carrión, Y., Rodríguez, R., Valdivié, M., Olmo, C., Betancur, C.
& Liu, G. 2015. "Growth performance, organ weights and some blood
parameters in replacement laying pullets fed with increasing levels of
wheat bran". Brazilian Journal of Poultry Science, 17(3): 347-354, ISSN: 1516-635X, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/1516-635X1703347-354.).
En este sentido, T2 y T3, con alto aporte y consumo de FC y grasa cruda (tabla 2),
podrían afectar el peso vivo y la conversión alimenticia. La fibra
dietética en este ingrediente alimenticio se caracteriza por contener
compuestos no digeribles por animales monogástricos (Daud y Jarvis 1992Daud, M.J. & Jarvis, M.C. 1992. "Mannans of oil palm kernels". Phytochemistry, 31(2): 463-464, ISSN: 0031-9422, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(92)90017-K.). Asimismo, Savón et al. (2007)Savón,
L., Scull, I. & Martínez, M. 2007. "Integral foliage meal for
poultry feeding. Chemical composition, physical properties and
phytochemical screening". Cuban Journal of Agricultural Science, 41(2): 359-361, ISSN: 2079-3480. e Iyayi et al. (2005)Iyayi,
E.A., Ogunsola, O. & Ijaya, R. 2005. ""Effect of three sources of
fiber and period of feeding on the performance, carcass measures, organs
relative weight and meat quality in broilers". International Journal of Poultry Science, 4(9): 695-700, ISSN: 1682-8356. Available: http://ir.library.ui.edu.ng/bitstream/123456789/4716/1/%2819%29%20ui_art_iyayi_effect_2005.pdf, [Consulted: May 1st, 2020].
mostraron que el exceso de fibra reduce la digestibilidad de
nutrientes, la retención de energía y el movimiento de minerales, lo que
afecta el comportamiento del crecimiento. Aya et al. (2013)Aya,
V.E., Ayanwale, B.A., Ijaiya, A.T. & Aremu, A. 2013. "Performance
and nutrient digestibility in broiler chicks as influenced by
multienzyme addition to starter diets containing palm kernel meal". Biotechnology in Animal Husbandry, 29(1): 93-104, ISSN: 1450-9156, DOI: https://doi.org/10.2298/BAH1301093A.
encontraron que las dietas que contenían hasta 400 g/kg de PKM reducían
la digestibilidad de MS, PC, grasa cruda, cenizas y extracto libre de
nitrógeno. Estos autores lo justificaron como mayor aporte e ingesta de
fibra cruda.
Los resultados de Mardhati et al. (2011)Mardhati,
M., Wong, H.K. & Noraini, S. 2011. "Growth performance and carcass
quality of broilers fed with palm kernel meal-based rations". Journal of Tropical Agriculture and Food Science, 39(2): 157-166, ISSN: 1394-9829, Available: http://jtafs.mardi.gov.my/jtafs/39-2/Growth%20performance%20and%20carcass%20quality%20of%20broilers.pdf, [Consulted: May 1st, 2020]. y Bello et al. (2011)Bello,
K.M., Oyawoye, E.O., Bogoro, S.O. & Dass, U.D. 2011. "Performance
of broilers fed varying levels of palm kernel cake". International Journal of Poultry Science, 10(4): 290-294, ISSN: 1682-8356, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3923/ijps.2011.290.294.,
quienes incluyeron PKM hasta 200 y 450 g/kg en dietas de pollos de
engorde (Ross 308® y Cobb 500®, respectivamente), encontraron resultados
similares en los indicadores bioproductivos. Ezieshi et al. (2008)Ezieshi,
E.V. & Olomu, J.M. 2008. "Nutritional evaluation of palm kernel
meal types: 2. Effects on live performance and nutrient retention in
broiler chicken diets". African Journal of Biotechnology, 7(8): 1171-1175, ISSN: 1684-5315, Available: https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajb/article/view/58640, [Consulted: May 1st, 2020].
reportaron deterioro del peso corporal y la eficiencia alimenticia en
un estudio de pollos de ceba con 300 y 325 g/kg de PKM en las dietas de
inicio y finalización, por lo que estos autores recomendaron que al
incluir PKM en niveles crecientes en las dietas de los animales,
deberían complementarse con aminoácidos esenciales. Sin embargo, se
necesitan otros estudios para corroborar la interacción de las
biomoléculas y los aportes de fibra en las dietas con PKM (Mardhati et al. 2011Mardhati,
M., Wong, H.K. & Noraini, S. 2011. "Growth performance and carcass
quality of broilers fed with palm kernel meal-based rations". Journal of Tropical Agriculture and Food Science, 39(2): 157-166, ISSN: 1394-9829, Available: http://jtafs.mardi.gov.my/jtafs/39-2/Growth%20performance%20and%20carcass%20quality%20of%20broilers.pdf, [Consulted: May 1st, 2020].).
El
uso de harina de frutos de la palma aceitera en dietas de pollos de
engorde no afectó los rendimientos de las porciones comestibles (%). Sin
embargo, T0 y T1 tienen efectos significativos en el peso absoluto de
la canal, la pechuga, la pierna y las vísceras en comparación de manera
significativa con T2 y T3 (P<0.05) (tabla 4).
La inclusión de PKM a 100 g/kg en la dieta reemplazó parcialmente al
maíz y la harina de soya, pero no suprimió el rendimiento de las
porciones comestibles en los pollos de ceba. Esto podría deberse a que
este tratamiento garantizaba el consumo estable de nutrientes,
especialmente de aminoácidos como lisina y metionina que influyen en la
síntesis de la pechuga en relación con otros músculos y en el
crecimiento del tejido conectivo, respectivamente (Berri et al. 2008Berri,
C., Besnard, J. & Relandeau, C. 2008. "Increasing dietary lysine
increases final pH and decreases drip loss of broiler breast meat". Poultry Science, 87(3): 480-484, ISSN: 0032-5791, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.2007-00226.).
Table 4.
Weight and yield of edible parts and total viscera of Cobb-500® broilers fed different levels of palm kernel meal
| Items | Inclusion of PKM (g/kg) | SEM± | P-value |
|---|
| T0 | T1 | T2 | T3 |
|---|
| Carcass weight (g) | 2026.83a | 1991.33ab | 1963.50b | 1891.50c | 12.832 | <0.001 |
| Carcass yield (%) | 73.20 | 73.12 | 72.88 | 71.97 | 0.358 | 0.629 |
| Breast weight (g) | 451.00a | 432.50ab | 421.90b | 399.17c | 4.940 | <0.001 |
| Breast yield (%) | 22.25 | 21.74 | 21.49 | 21.11 | 0.193 | 0.205 |
| Leg weight (g) | 656.50a | 634.00a | 612.50ab | 566.53b | 10.103 | 0.005 |
| Leg yield (%) | 32.39 | 31.87 | 31.19 | 29.98 | 0.458 | 0.287 |
| Total viscera weight (g) | 156.33a | 151.00ab | 148.23b | 140.47c | 1.654 | 0.002 |
| Total viscera yield (%) | 5.65 | 5.54 | 5.50 | 5.34 | 0.052 | 0.216 |
| Abdominal fat (g) | 72.60 | 72.60 | 71.02 | 70.67 | 0.846 | 0.122 |
| Abdominal fat (%) | 2.62 | 2.67 | 2.64 | 2.67 | 0.044 | 0.856 |
a,b,cMeans followed by different letters in each row as significantly different at p<0.05 (Duncan 1955Duncan, D.B. 1955. "Multiple Range and Multiple F Tests". Biometrics, 11(1): 1-42, ISSN: 0006-341X, DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3001478.).
Carcass is considered here with no viscera, head, or feet. Breast, leg,
and total viscera yields are expressed as carcass percentage.
Sin embargo, T2 y T3 disminuyeron el rendimiento de las
porciones comestibles, que podría estar relacionado con la alta
concentración de fibra que suprimió la conversión alimenticia y la
ganancia de peso corporal de las aves (Riber y Tahamtani 2020Riber,
A.B. & Tahamtani, F.M. 2020. "Motivation for feeding in broiler
breeder pullets fed different types of restricted high-fibre diets". Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 230(2020): 1-11, ISSN: 0168-1591, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2020.105048.).
El alto contenido de fibra en las dietas disminuye la digestión y la
absorción de nutrientes, y puede inflamar el intestino delgado (Fasuyi 2020Fasuyi,
A. 2020. "Biotechnological upgrade of high fibre-low protein industrial
plant by-products in broiler diets: Carcass and organs
characteristics". Asian Journal of Advances in Agricultural Research, 13(1): 30-38, ISSN: 2456-8864, DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/ajaar/2020/v13i130096.),
lo que afecta la deposición de proteínas en los tejidos corporales. Los
resultados de la presente investigación coinciden con los de Beloshapka et al. (2016)Beloshapka,
A.N., Buff, P.R., Fahey, G.C. & Swanson, K.S. 2016. "Compositional
analysis of whole grains, processed grains, grain co-products, and other
carbohydrate sources with applicability to pet animal nutrition". Foods, 5(2): 1-16, ISSN: 2304-8158, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/foods5020023.,
quienes encontraron reducciones significativas (P<0.05) en el peso
absoluto de la canal al aumentar los niveles de fibra en las dietas de
pollos de engorde.
La alta variabilidad en la composición química
de PKM y las muchas variantes para su formulación en la dieta influyen
directamente en el comportamiento del crecimiento y en los rasgos de la
canal. Muchos autores han argumentado acerca de la función de la
concentración de fibra en PKM. En este estudio, se observaron efectos
negativos en las respuestas del comportamiento del crecimiento y los
rasgos de la canal cuando se utiliza PKM con 201.1 g/kg de FC a un nivel
de inclusión superior a 100 g/kg en la dieta. Okeudo et al. (2006)Okeudo,
N.J., Onyike, I.L., Okoli, C.V. & Chielo, I.L. 2006. "Production
performance, meat quality and feed cost implications of utilizing high
levels of palm kernel cake in broiler finisher diets". International Journal of Poultry Science, 5(12): 1160-1163, ISSN: 1682-8356, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3923/ijps.2006.1160.1163.
utilizaron PKM con menor contenido de FC e indicaron que la inclusión
de 350 y 300 g/kg de PKM no afectó negativamente el peso relativo de los
órganos y la canal. Por el contrario, García et al. (1999)García, C.A., Gernat, A.G. & Murillo, J.G. 1999. "The effect of four levels of palm kernel meal in broiler diets". Ceiba, 40(2): 291-295, ISSN: 2225-6687, Available: https://revistas.zamorano.edu/index.php/CEIBA/article/view/446, [Consulted: May 1st, 2020]. informaron que la inclusión de 100 g/kg de PKM, con 249.0 g/kg de FC, redujo el peso y rendimiento de la canal y la pechuga.
La tabla 5
muestra que un aumento en los niveles de PKM en las dietas de pollos de
engorde disminuyó (P<0.05) el costo del alimento, el costo del
alimento para producir un kg de peso vivo, la canal, la pechuga y la
pierna, con utilidades económicas. En la actualidad, el estudio de
factibilidad económica es fundamental cuando se utilizan piensos
alternativos en dietas animales que sustituyen materias primas
importadas como las harinas de maíz y soya, ya que los piensos
representan la mayor parte del costo de producción. En su mayor parte,
los investigadores están de acuerdo en que la PKM reduce el costo de
alimento/ave con una considerable ganancia económica, aunque estas
ganancias estarán influenciadas por el costo de otras materias primas en
cada área de producción (Onwudike 1986Onwudike,
O.C. 1986. "Palm kernel meal as a feed for poultry. 3. Replacement of
groundnut cake by palm kernel meal in broiler diets". Animal Feed Science and Technology, 16(3): 195-202, ISSN: 0377-8401, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0377-8401(86)90110-0.).
Table 5.
Cost-benefit analysis of Cobb-500® broilers fed different levels of palm kernel meal (47 days)
| Items | Inclusion of PKM (g/kg) | SEM± | P-value |
|---|
| | T0 | T1 | T2 | T3 | | |
|---|
| Cost of feed consumed (USD) | 3.24a | 3.11b | 2.84c | 2.51d | 0.029 | 0.005 |
| Feed cost/kg of live weight (USD) | 1.19a | 1.14ab | 1.11b | 1.02c | 0.022 | <0.001 |
| Utility/control (USD) | - | 0.05 | 0.08 | 0.17 | - | - |
| Feed cost/kg of carcass (USD) | 1.60a | 1.56a | 1.45b | 1.33c | 0.014 | <0.001 |
| Utility/control (USD) | - | 0.04 | 0.15 | 0.27 | - | - |
| Feed cost/kg of breast (USD) | 7.19a | 7.19a | 6.72b | 6.30c | 0.066 | <0.001 |
| Utility/control (USD) | - | 0.00 | 0.47 | 0.89 | - | - |
| Feed cost/kg of leg (USD) | 4.94a | 4.90a | 4.63b | 4.44c | 0.045 | <0.001 |
| Utilily/control (USD) | - | 0.04 | 0.31 | 0.50 | - | - |
a,b,c,dMeans followed by different letters in each row as significantly different at p<0.05 (Duncan 1955Duncan, D.B. 1955. "Multiple Range and Multiple F Tests". Biometrics, 11(1): 1-42, ISSN: 0006-341X, DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3001478.)
Por tanto, la PKM puede considerarse una estrategia de autosuficiencia alimentaria. Shakila et al. (2012)Shakila,
S., Reddy, P.S., Reddy, P.V., Ramana, J.V. & Ravi, A. 2012. "Effect
of palm kernel meal on the performance of broilers". Tamil Nadu Journal of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, 8(4): 227-234, ISSN: 0973-2942.
utilizaron 75 g/kg de PKM en dietas para pollos de engorde y
encontraron un menor costo de alimento por kg de ganancia de peso vivo
en comparación con el control. Asimismo, Onwudike (1986)Onwudike,
O.C. 1986. "Palm kernel meal as a feed for poultry. 3. Replacement of
groundnut cake by palm kernel meal in broiler diets". Animal Feed Science and Technology, 16(3): 195-202, ISSN: 0377-8401, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0377-8401(86)90110-0.
mostró una eficiencia económica al disminuir el costo del alimento y el
costo de producción con la utilización de PKM hasta 350 g/kg en dietas
para pollos de engorde. Sin embargo, aunque T2 y T3 redujeron el
comportamiento del crecimiento y las porciones comestibles (tablas 3 y 4), y la reducción de costos (tabla 2) de estas dietas, resultaron en mayores utilidades económicas, como también lo plantearon Okeudo et al. (2006)Okeudo,
N.J., Onyike, I.L., Okoli, C.V. & Chielo, I.L. 2006. "Production
performance, meat quality and feed cost implications of utilizing high
levels of palm kernel cake in broiler finisher diets". International Journal of Poultry Science, 5(12): 1160-1163, ISSN: 1682-8356, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3923/ijps.2006.1160.1163. y Onwudike (1986)Onwudike,
O.C. 1986. "Palm kernel meal as a feed for poultry. 3. Replacement of
groundnut cake by palm kernel meal in broiler diets". Animal Feed Science and Technology, 16(3): 195-202, ISSN: 0377-8401, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0377-8401(86)90110-0.. Esto muestra que el empleo de este alimento alternativo fomenta ganancias económicas en la producción avícola.
ConclusionesLos
resultados de este experimento demostraron que la inclusión de hasta
100 g/kg de frutos de la palma aceitera en la dieta de pollos machos de
engorde Cobb 500®, como sustituto parcial de la harina de maíz y soya,
no afectó el comportamiento del crecimiento, los rasgos de la canal y
los beneficios económicos. Además, los niveles de inclusión de 300 g/kg
de harina de frutos de la palma aceitera tuvieron el mejor análisis de
costo-beneficio.