Introduction
⌅In many regions, the skin pigmentation of chickens defines their commercialization, since it is associated with a chicken raised in grazing or free range. Thus, the poultry industry is focused on pigmenting chickens according to consumer characteristics, considering intensity and color (Barbut and Leishmanm 2022Barbut, S. & Leishmanm, E.M. 2022. Quality and processability of modern poultry meat. Animals, 12(20): 2766, ISSN: 2076-2615. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12202766.). Many strategies have been used, such as the individual or mixed dietary use of yellow and red-orange pigments, whether natural or synthetic, that from the first stages of life can pigment the tarsus or the beak (Xue et al. 2021Xue, X., Fan, L., Dong, Y., Yuan, X., Wang, L., Yang, F. & Zhao, S. 2021. Evaluation of canthaxanthin in eggs and its subsequent dietary risks to Chinese consumers. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A, 38(2): 255-260, ISSN: 1944-0057. https://doi.org/10.1080/19440049.2020.1853822.). One strategy is the dietary supplementation with canthaxanthin, which is a carotenoid synthetic pigment from the xanthophyll category (Bera 2020Bera, S. 2020. Nutraceutical Aspect of canthaxanthin in animal feed technology. European Journal of Molecular & Clinical Medicine, 7(7): 3076-3084, ISSN: 2515-8260. https://ejmcm.com/uploads/paper/749197d3a872d7e212c73e8792ac2572.pdf.). This pigment has a marked antioxidant effect in vivo (Elia et al. 2019Elia, A.C., Prearo. M., Dörr, A.J.M., Pacin, N., Magara, G., Brizio, P. & Abete, M.C. 2019. Effects of astaxanthin and canthaxanthin on oxidative stress biomarkers in rainbow trout. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A, 82(13): 760-768, ISSN: 2381-3504. https://doi.org/10.1080/15287394.2019.1648346.); studies have related this effect to the development of the embryo and its subsequent postnatal growth. The use of this synthetic pigment had positive results in the hatchability and vitality of the hatched chick (Araújo et al. 2020Araújo, I.C., Café, M.B., Mesquita, M.A., Caiado, B.N., Faria, A.M., Mello, H.H., Stringhini, J.H. & Leandro, N.S. 2020. Effect of a commercial product containing canthaxanthin for in ovo feeding to broiler embryos on hatchability, chick quality, oxidation status, and performance. Poultry Science, 99(11): 5598-5606, ISSN: 1525-3171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2020.08.044.).
The European Union and other countries have limited the use of synthetic pigments; thus, nutritionists are looking for natural pigments for animal production (Pertiwi et al. 2022Pertiwi, H., Nur Mahendra, M.Y. & Kamaludeen, J. 2022. Astaxanthin as a potential antioxidant to improve health and production performance of broiler chicken. Veterinary Medicine International, 2022(1): 4919442, ISSN: 2042-0048. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/4919442.). Likewise, some natural pigments also have a phytobiotic function, since they are rich in secondary metabolites that, in low concentrations, have a positive productive response. Among the natural pigments initially proposed for laying hens are Bixa orellana and Murraya koenigii (Franco and Gomez 2022Franco, R.L. & Gómez, D.V. 2022. Efecto de diferentes pigmentos en la productividad y calidad del huevo de gallinas ponedoras. Tesis presentada en opción a Ingeniero Agrónomo. Universidad de Zamorano. 20 pp. https://bdigital.zamorano.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/3c53c325-02d9-458a-8baa-36959b89814f/content. ). Previous experiments indicated that the use of up to 1.5% Bixa orellana in hen diets markedly pigmented yolk color and improved albumen height and Haugh unit (Martínez et al. 2021aMartínez, Y., Orozco, C.E., Montellano, R.M., Valdivié, M. & Parrado, C.A. 2021a. Use of achiote (Bixa orellana L.) seed powder as pigment of the egg yolk of laying hens. Journal of Applied Poultry Research, 30(2): 100154, ISSN: 1537-0437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.japr.2021.100154.), as well as a study in broilers, indicated improvements in feed efficiency and edible portions (Moncayo and Ramírez 2020Moncayo, T. & Ramírez. J.R. 2020. Efecto nutracéutico del achiote (Bixa orellana) sobre indicadores biológicos de pollos de engorde. Tesis presentada en opción a Ingeniero Agrónomo. Universidad de Zamorano. 48 pp. https://bdigital.zamorano.edu/handle/11036/6792.), related to the high concentration of bixin and norbixin in the seed powder of this pigment. Also, Murraya koenigii has been used daily in human food as a pigment/seasoning for its flavor and aroma (Tabashiri et al. 2022Tabashiri, A., Qadirifard, M. S., Ghaderi, A., Rahmannia, M., Kiani, S., Sharafi, A. & Deravi, N. 2022. A decade anti-diabetic potential of murraya koenigii (curry leaf): A narrative review. African Journal of Diabetes Medicine, 30(3), ISSN: 2053-4787. https://www.africanjournalofdiabetesmedicine.com/articles/a-decade-antidiabetic-potential-of-murraya-koenigii-curry-leaf-a-narrative-review.pdf.); however, few studies have been carried out to verify its effect on skin pigmentation in poultry.
On the other hand, the phytobiotic use of 1 % of Murraya koenigii in diets improved body weight and feed conversion ratio, without affecting edible portions (Karnani et al. 2018Karnani, M., Sharma, V., Choudhary, S., Sharma, S., Saini, S. & Pandey, A. 2018. Effect of curry (Murraya koenigii) leaf powder supplementation on performance of broilers chickens. Indian Journal of Poultry Science, 12(2): 2120-2122, ISSN: 0974-8180. http://dx.doi.org/10.5958/0974-8180.2018.00058.2.). Other studies demonstrated that dietary supplementation with 1.0 % Murraya koenigii reduced serum harmful lipids and abdominal fat, and increased feed efficiency and breast yield in broilers (Sharma et al. 2021Sharma, D., Biswas, A., Deo, C. & Tyagi, P.K. 2021. Effect of dietary supplementation of curry leaves powder on growth performance, immunity, serum biochemical and carcass traits of broiler chickens. Indian Journal of Poultry Science, 8: 80-89, ISSN: 0974-8180. http://dx.doi.org/10.5958/0974-8180.2021.00009.X. ). Considering the above results, it was hypothesized whether the use of natural and synthetic pigments can have a non-antibiotic growth-promoting effect in young broilers, associated with immune activity mediated by lymphoid organs and cecal microbial activity, especially at this critical stage of life (0-10 days) (Martínez et al. 2021bMartínez, Y., Altamirano, E., Ortega, V., Paz, P. & Valdivié, M. 2021b. Effect of age on the immune and visceral organ weights and cecal traits in modern broilers. Animals, 11(3): 845-858, ISSN: 2076-2615. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11030845.). Therefore, the present study was conducted to evaluate the effects of dietary supplementation of natural and synthetic pigments on growth, relative weight of some organs, and cecal traits of young broilers.
Materials and Methods
⌅Ethics Statement
⌅This research work followed the Guidelines for Experimental Animals (Reference number: 7926) of the Department of Agricultural Sciences and Production of the Zamorano University, San Antonio de Oriente, Francisco Morazan, Honduras.
Animals, housing, treatments, and diets
⌅A total of 480 Ross 308® male chickens from birth to 10 days old, were randomly assigned to metabolic cages (0.70 m wide x 1.0 m long and 14.29 birds/m2) in four treatments (four replicates and 30 birds per replicate). The experimental diets consisted in a control diet (CD), CD+1 % achiote (Bixa orellana), CD+1 % curry (Murraya koenigii) and CD+0.03 % canthaxanthin. Temperature and lighting were controlled daily. Previous studies (Moncayo and Ramirez 2020Moncayo, T. & Ramírez. J.R. 2020. Efecto nutracéutico del achiote (Bixa orellana) sobre indicadores biológicos de pollos de engorde. Tesis presentada en opción a Ingeniero Agrónomo. Universidad de Zamorano. 48 pp. https://bdigital.zamorano.edu/handle/11036/6792., Sharma et al. 2021Sharma, D., Biswas, A., Deo, C. & Tyagi, P.K. 2021. Effect of dietary supplementation of curry leaves powder on growth performance, immunity, serum biochemical and carcass traits of broiler chickens. Indian Journal of Poultry Science, 8: 80-89, ISSN: 0974-8180. http://dx.doi.org/10.5958/0974-8180.2021.00009.X. , Bonamigo et al. 2022Bonamigo, D.V., Rosa, A.P., Paixão, S.J., Stefanello, F.S., Londero, A., Mariani, A.B. & Bittencourt, L.C. 2022. Performance, carcass yield and cuts of male broilers fed with canthaxanthin and 25-hydroxycholecalciferol in the diet. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 283: 115173, ISSN: 1873-2216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2021.115173. and Franco and Gomez 2022Franco, R.L. & Gómez, D.V. 2022. Efecto de diferentes pigmentos en la productividad y calidad del huevo de gallinas ponedoras. Tesis presentada en opción a Ingeniero Agrónomo. Universidad de Zamorano. 20 pp. https://bdigital.zamorano.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/3c53c325-02d9-458a-8baa-36959b89814f/content. ) were taken as references for the dietary inclusion levels of pigments. Diets were formulated following Ross 308 requirements (table 1 and photo 1). The pigments used were acquired in the company "Alimento", Honduras. Feed and water were offered ad libitum in linear feeders and nipple drinkers, respectively. Initial and final body weights (IBW and FBW), as well as feed intake (FI) were measured to determine the feed conversion ratio (FCR).
Ingredients (%) | Control diet |
---|---|
Corn meal | 59.16 |
Soymeal | 32.29 |
Mineral and vitamin premix1 | 0.35 |
Sodium chloride | 0.25 |
Sodium bicarbonate | 0.25 |
African palm oil | 3.44 |
Choline | 0.05 |
DL-Methionine | 0.34 |
L-Threonine | 0.16 |
L-Lysine | 0.32 |
Calcium carbonate | 1.60 |
Monocalcium phosphate | 1.54 |
Mycotoxin binder | 0.20 |
Coccidiostat | 0.05 |
Calculated nutritional contributions (%) | |
Metabolizable energy (MJ/kg) | 12.44 |
Crude protein | 22.00 |
Ca | 0.90 |
Available P | 0.45 |
Digestible Lysine | 1.22 |
Digestible Methionine+Cistine | 0.91 |
Digestible Threonine | 0.83 |
Digestible Tryptophan | 0.20 |
Na | 0.18 |
Cl | 0.21 |
1Each kg contains: vitamin A 11,550 IU, vitamin D3 4,300 IU, vitamin E 27.5 IU, vitamin K3 3.85 mg, vitamin B1 2.75 mg, vitamin B2 9.9 mg, vitamin B6 3.85 mg, vitamin B12 22.0 Mcg, niacin 49.5 mg, pantothenic acid 15.4 mg, folic acid 1.38 mg, biotin 166 Mcg; selenium 0.09 mg, iodine 0.18 mg, copper 3.00 mg, iron 36.0 mg, manganese 54.0 mg, zinc 48.0 mg, cobalt 0.12 mg.
Relative weight of digestive, visceral, and immune organs
⌅At 10 days old 80 broilers (20 chickens per replicate) per treatment were randomly selected to determine relative organ weights. From each chicken, the viscera (liver and heart), the immune organs (thymus, spleen, and bursa of Fabricius), the digestive organs (proventriculus and gizzard), and the intestines (small and caecum) were extracted. The relative weight was determined according to the body weight at the slaughter of broilers (Aguilar et al. 2013Aguilar, Y., Yero, O., Liu, G., Ren, W., Bertot, R., Jiménez, F. & Nyachoti, C.M. 2013. Effect of dietary supplementation with Anacardium occidentale on growth performance and immune and visceral organ weights in replacement laying pullets. Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment, 11: 1352-1357, ISSN: 1459-0263. https://doi.org/10.1234/4.2013.4855.).
Cecal traits
⌅The left cecum of 20 broilers per treatment (five samples per replicate) was taken, and the pH was determined was determined using an Oakton®model 700 digital pH meter (Oakton Instruments, Vermon Hills, IL, USA). Before testing, the potentiometer was calibrated with pH buffers at 1.68, 4.01, 7.00, 10.01, and 12.45 according to the manufacturer’s recommendations.
Also, the right cecum of five birds per treatment was taken, and the mucosa with a scalpel was scraped for microbiological culture. Each sample's cecal content was placed in a sterile tube; weight was recorded and diluted with Buffered Peptone Water (BPW, Liofilchem, Italy) to a 1:9 ratio (w:v). Diluted cecal contents were homogenized, and serial dilutions (1/10) were made from it until dilution 105. Aliquots of 0.1 mL of each dilution were spread-plated on the surface of selective and differential media for microbiological analysis. Violet Red Bile Glucose agar plates for Enterocateriaceae and Violet Red Bile Lactose MUG Agar for coliform and E. coli counts (Liofilchem, Italy), were incubated at 35 °C for 24 h. Yeast and molds were determined with Rose-Bengal Chloramphenicol Agar (Liofilchem, Italy) incubated at 25 °C for five days. Lactic acid bacteria were enumerated on Man Rogosa Sharpe agar (Liofilchem, Italy) supplemented with methylene blue (0.016 g/1000mL) at 37 °C with a pH of 5.6 for 48 h in anaerobiosis (Gas Pak system, BBL, Cockeysville, USA) (Lan et al. 2017Lan, R.X., Lee, S.I. & Kim, I.H. 2017. Effects of Enterococcus faecium SLB 120 on growth performance, blood parameters, relative organ weight, breast muscle meat quality, excreta microbiota shedding, and noxious gas emission in broilers. Poultry Science, 96: 3246-3253, ISSN: 1525-3171. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps/pex101.).
All bacterial counts were presented as Log CFU/g. Presence of Salmonella on each cecum was determined by pre-enrichment of the diluted cecum in BPW at 35 °C for 24 h, followed by selective enrichment for with tetrathionate broth (Liofilchem, Italy) and Rappaport-Vassiliadis broth (Neogen Acumedia, Mich) at 35 and 42 °C, respectively. After selective enrichment, one loop of each selective media was streaked onto the surface of XLD agar, Hektoen Enteric Agar, and Bismuth Sulphite Agar (Neogen Acumedia, Mich). All selective plates were incubated at 35 °C for 24-48 h. Typical colonies were picked and confirmed by biochemical test on Triple Sugar Iron Agar and Lysine Iron Agar (Liofilchem, Italy). Serological confirmation was made with Salmonella O antiserum poly A-I & Vi Antiserum (BD Difco, MD) (Martínez et al. 2021bMartínez, Y., Altamirano, E., Ortega, V., Paz, P. & Valdivié, M. 2021b. Effect of age on the immune and visceral organ weights and cecal traits in modern broilers. Animals, 11(3): 845-858, ISSN: 2076-2615. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11030845.).
Statistical analysis
⌅The data was processed using the one-way ANOVA test of SPSS 23.0 (SPSS Inc., IBM Corporation, New York, NY, USA) in a completely randomized design, before carrying out the analysis of variance, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was performed, and the Bartlett’s test was used to evaluate the uniformity of the variance, where necessary. Finally, Duncan range test was used to determine the differences between means (P<0.05).
Results and Discussion
⌅The experimental diets did not change (P>0.05) the viability in the first 10 days old of broilers (table 2). However, the dietary supplementation with Bixa orellana increased (P<0.05) the body weight compared to the other treatments. Furthermore, diets with Murraya koenigii and canthaxanthin decreased feed intake, which provoked the highest feed conversion ratio (table 2, P<0.05) in relation to the control and Bixa orellana groups.
Items | Experimental treatments | SEM± | P-value | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control | Bixa orellana | Murraya koenigii | Canthaxanthin | |||
IBW (g) | 47.52 | 47.54 | 47.58 | 47.57 | 0.095 | 0.091 |
FBW (g) | 258.48b | 270.00a | 203.16c | 206.08c | 6.314 | 0.001 |
FI (g) | 198.15ab | 210.25a | 175.85b | 176.5b | 5.180 | 0.038 |
FCR | 0.94b | 0.95b | 1.13a | 1.11a | 0.051 | 0.001 |
Viability (%) | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 |
a,b,cMeans within the same row with different superscript differ significantly (P<0.05).
IBW: initial body weight; FBW: final body weight; FI: feed intake; FCR: feed conversion ratio
In this study, only the Bixa orellana seed powder promoted the body weight, the other ingredients decreased this productive indicator (table 2). In this sense, Moncayo and Ramírez (2020)Moncayo, T. & Ramírez. J.R. 2020. Efecto nutracéutico del achiote (Bixa orellana) sobre indicadores biológicos de pollos de engorde. Tesis presentada en opción a Ingeniero Agrónomo. Universidad de Zamorano. 48 pp. https://bdigital.zamorano.edu/handle/11036/6792. reported that the use of 1.5 % achiote in the diet improved the feed efficiency of broilers up to 28 days old, due to the presence of bixin and norbixin in achiote, which has an antioxidant effect in vitro and in vivo (Ashraf et al. 2023Ashraf, A., Ijaz, M.U., Muzammil, S., Nazir, M.M., Zafar, S., Zihad, S.N.K. & Nayak, A.K. 2023. The role of bixin as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and skin protecting natural product extracted from Bixa orellana L. Fitoterapia, 169: 105612, ISSN: 1873-6971. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2023.105612.). Likewise, Handayani et al. (2024)Handayani, I., Septiana, A. T. & Sustriawan, B. 2024. Natural pigments and antioxidants properties of annatto extract at various pH of distilled water solvent and extraction times. Food Research, 8(2): 489-494, ISSN: 2550-2166. http://dx.doi.org/10.26656/fr.2017.8(2).394. reported that when testing different carotenoids as an antioxidant, norbixin was the only one that inhibited the oxidative deterioration of lipids. Also, Garcia et al. (2012)Garcia, C.E.R., Bolognesi, V.J., Dias, J.D.F.G., Miguel, O.G. & Cost, C.K. 2012. Carotenoids bixin and norbixin from annatto (Bixa orellana L.) as antioxidants in meat products. Ciência Rural, 42: 1510-1518, ISSN: 1678-4596. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-84782012000800029. mentioned that bixin and norbixin in achiote decrease lipid peroxidation in meat. In a study by Nathan et al. (2019)Nathan, V.K., Rani, M.E., Rathinasamy, G. & Narayanan Dhiraviam, K. 2019. Antioxidant and antimicrobial potential of natural colouring pigment derived from Bixa orellana L. Seed Aril. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, India Section B: Biological Sciences, 89: 137-143, ISSN: 2250-1746. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40011-017-0927-z. reported that bixin and norbixin, as the main chemical components of achiote, do not present carcinogenic and mutagenic effects by silico methods, in addition, the authors found a marked bactericidal effect against enterobacteria. Apparently, the antioxidant and antimicrobial effect of the achiote benefited the productivity of young birds (up to 10 days old), considering that the first days old is the most critical moment for these animals, which present low immunological, enzymatic and antioxidant activity (Martínez et al. 2021bMartínez, Y., Altamirano, E., Ortega, V., Paz, P. & Valdivié, M. 2021b. Effect of age on the immune and visceral organ weights and cecal traits in modern broilers. Animals, 11(3): 845-858, ISSN: 2076-2615. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11030845.).
Both canthaxanthin and Murraya koenigii decreased feed intake, which had a negative influence on body weight, although without affecting the viability of young broilers (table 2). Several studies have demonstrated the antioxidant role of canthaxanthin in animals (Mathimaran et al. 2020Mathimaran, A., Kumar, A., Prajapati, G., Ampapathi, R.S., Bora, H.K. & Guha, R. 2020. Partially saturated canthaxanthin alleviates aging-associated oxidative stress in d-galactose administered male Wistar rats. Biogerontology, 22: 19-34, ISSN: 1573-6768. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10522-020-09898-4.). In this sense, von Lintig et al. (2020)von Lintig, J., Moon, J., Lee, J. & Ramkumar, S. 2020. Carotenoid metabolism at the intestinal barrier. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA)-Molecular and Cell Biology of Lipids, 1865(11): 158580, ISSN: 1879-2618. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbalip.2019.158580. stated that canthaxanthin has shown antioxidant activity in various in vitro and in vivo model systems, which may enhance endogenous antioxidant activity and reduce cellular oxidative stress. Bonamigo et al. (2022)Bonamigo, D.V., Rosa, A.P., Paixão, S.J., Stefanello, F.S., Londero, A., Mariani, A.B. & Bittencourt, L.C. 2022. Performance, carcass yield and cuts of male broilers fed with canthaxanthin and 25-hydroxycholecalciferol in the diet. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 283: 115173, ISSN: 1873-2216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2021.115173. showed that diets containing canthaxanthin associated with 25-OH-D3 improved productivity and bone development in broilers. However, Araújo et al (2020)Araújo, I.C., Café, M.B., Mesquita, M.A., Caiado, B.N., Faria, A.M., Mello, H.H., Stringhini, J.H. & Leandro, N.S. 2020. Effect of a commercial product containing canthaxanthin for in ovo feeding to broiler embryos on hatchability, chick quality, oxidation status, and performance. Poultry Science, 99(11): 5598-5606, ISSN: 1525-3171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2020.08.044. did not recommend the dietary use of canthaxanthin in ovo because it decreased the feed efficiency in broilers, even though this synthetic product increased hatch indicators and oxidative status. Further studies are needed to understand the role of canthaxanthin in gastrointestinal health and endogenous antioxidant capacity in young broilers.
The antioxidant effect of Murraya koenigii is known because it captures the free radicals formed in the lipid peroxidation process (Bharathi et al. 2011Bharathi, P., Reddy, A.G., Reddy, A.R. & Alpharaj, M. 2011. A study of certain herbs against chlorpyrifos-induced changes in lipid and protein profile in poultry. Toxicology International, 18: 44-46, ISSN: 0976-5131. https://doi.org/10.4103/0971-6580.75854.). Das et al. (2011)Das, A.K., Rajkumar, V. & Dwivedi, D.K. 2011. Antioxidant effect of curry leaf (Murraya koenigii) powder on quality of ground and cooked goat meat. International Food Research Journal, 18: 563-569, ISSN: 2231-7546. http://www.ifrj.upm.edu.my/18%20(02)%202011/(14)%20IFRJ-2010-056.pdf. verified the antioxidant effect of this natural product when they evaluated the formation of lipid peroxides, free fatty acids and thiobarbituric acid substances (TBARS) in meat. Although studies in broilers are scarce, Bharathi et al. (2011)Bharathi, P., Reddy, A.G., Reddy, A.R. & Alpharaj, M. 2011. A study of certain herbs against chlorpyrifos-induced changes in lipid and protein profile in poultry. Toxicology International, 18: 44-46, ISSN: 0976-5131. https://doi.org/10.4103/0971-6580.75854. reported that the use of 0.1 % of Murraya koenigii could reduce the toxicity of chlorpyrifos (organophosphate insecticide) in broilers. Apparently, the use of Murraya koenigii at 1.0 % had an opposite effect on the response of the animals (table 2), future studies should consider lower levels of inclusion in the diet of broilers.
Table 3 shows the effect of diets with natural and synthetic pigments on changes in the relative weight of digestive, visceral, and immune organs of young broilers. The canthaxanthin group increased (P<0.05) the relative weight of the thymus and bursa of Fabricius compared to the other treatments. Furthermore, the relative weight of the spleen changed significantly (P<0.05) due to this treatment (canthaxanthin), which provoked differences with the control diet and the Murraya koenigii group.
In addition, the Bixa orellana group decreased (P<0.05) the relative weight of the proventriculus and cecum, although, the latter organ (cecum) without significant changes (P>0.05) with the Murraya koenigii group. Likewise, this natural pigment (Murraya koenigii) decreased (P<0.05) the relative weight of abdominal fat and liver in relation to the control, canthaxanthin and Bixa orellana treatments, respectively. The relative weight of the gizzard, pancreas, and heart did not change due to the experimental treatments (P>0.05).
Items (g/kg) | Experimental treatments | SEM± | P-value | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control | Bixa orellana | Murraya koenigii | Canthaxanthin | |||
Proventriculus | 1.04a | 0.90b | 0.97a | 0.98a | 0.035 | 0.048 |
Gizzard | 5.71 | 5.78 | 5.90 | 5.73 | 0.075 | 0.091 |
Pancreas | 0.47 | 0.49 | 0.49 | 0.53 | 0.054 | 0.068 |
Liver | 3.03b | 3.22ab | 2.92c | 3.26a | 0.105 | 0.034 |
Spleen | 0.06b | 0.10ab | 0.07b | 0.16a | 0.028 | 0.008 |
Thymus | 0.22b | 0.22b | 0.24b | 0.30a | 0.015 | 0.050 |
Bursa of Fabricius | 0.16b | 0.18b | 0.17b | 0.24a | 0.025 | 0.048 |
Heart | 0.67 | 0.60 | 0.60 | 0.62 | 0.037 | 0.059 |
Cecum | 1.65a | 1.07c | 1.15bc | 1.44b | 0.156 | 0.034 |
Small intestine | 9.83b | 10.10ab | 9.87b | 11.05a | 0.384 | 0.050 |
Abdominal fat | 0.36a | 0.33ab | 0.27b | 0.36a | 0.028 | 0.027 |
a,b,cMeans within the same row with different superscript differ significantly (P<0.05)
On the other hand, the canthaxanthin diet increased the relative weight of the primary lymphoid organs (bursa of Fabricius and thymus) and secondary (spleen) in relation to the control (table 3), although the feed efficiency decreased in young broilers. Other studies that challenged lipopolysaccharide found an increase in bursal morphometric index in broilers when using lutein+canthaxanthin (Koutsos et al. 2003Koutsos, E.A., Calvert, C.C. & Klasing, K.C. 2003. The effect of an acute phase response on tissue carotenoid levels of growing chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A, 135(4): 635-646, ISSN: 1531-4332. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1095-6433(03)00158-2.). Commonly, a greater relative weight of immune organs such as the thymus, bursa of Fabricius, and spleen is related to greater immunological activity in the early stages of broilers (Guo et al. 2021Guo, Y., Balasubramanian, B., Zhao, Z.H. & Liu, W.C. 2021. Marine algal polysaccharides alleviate aflatoxin B1-induced bursa of Fabricius injury by regulating redox and apoptotic signaling pathway in broilers. Poultry Science, 100: 844-857, ISSN: 1525-3171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2020.10.050.), because the primary lymphoid organs produce B lymphocytes (bursa of Fabricius) and T (thymus) involved in memory and immunological defense, respectively (Aguilar et al. 2013Aguilar, Y., Yero, O., Liu, G., Ren, W., Bertot, R., Jiménez, F. & Nyachoti, C.M. 2013. Effect of dietary supplementation with Anacardium occidentale on growth performance and immune and visceral organ weights in replacement laying pullets. Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment, 11: 1352-1357, ISSN: 1459-0263. https://doi.org/10.1234/4.2013.4855.). However, in this experiment, it appears that the relative weight of the thymus, bursa of Fabricius and spleen of broilers (10 days old) with the canthaxanthin group is abnormal. In a study by Martínez et al. (2021b)Martínez, Y., Altamirano, E., Ortega, V., Paz, P. & Valdivié, M. 2021b. Effect of age on the immune and visceral organ weights and cecal traits in modern broilers. Animals, 11(3): 845-858, ISSN: 2076-2615. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11030845. on the allometry of immune organs in broilers up to 10 days old, they reported mean relative weights of the thymus, bursa of Fabricius, and spleen of 0.25, 0.18, and 0.11 %, respectively. Furthermore, in apparently healthy birds, hyperimmunity leads to a higher energy cost to produce lymphocytes and antibodies and for the activity of macrophages and anti-inflammatory mechanisms (Pålsson-McDermott and O’Neill 2020Pålsson-McDermott, E.M. & O’Neill, L.A. 2020. Targeting immunometabolism as an anti-inflammatory strategy. Cell Research, 30(4): 300-314, ISSN: 1748-7838. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41422-020-0291-z.). This could justify decreasing the FI and weight gain of the chickens with the canthaxanthin diet (table 2).
Several studies with natural products rich in beneficial secondary metabolites have reported that abnormal growth of lymphoid organs and other digestive organs results in a decrease in the productive response, with a higher emphasis on young broilers (Aguilar et al. 2013Aguilar, Y., Yero, O., Liu, G., Ren, W., Bertot, R., Jiménez, F. & Nyachoti, C.M. 2013. Effect of dietary supplementation with Anacardium occidentale on growth performance and immune and visceral organ weights in replacement laying pullets. Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment, 11: 1352-1357, ISSN: 1459-0263. https://doi.org/10.1234/4.2013.4855. and Moncayo and Ramírez 2020Moncayo, T. & Ramírez. J.R. 2020. Efecto nutracéutico del achiote (Bixa orellana) sobre indicadores biológicos de pollos de engorde. Tesis presentada en opción a Ingeniero Agrónomo. Universidad de Zamorano. 48 pp. https://bdigital.zamorano.edu/handle/11036/6792.). In this sense, canthaxanthin as a synthetic pigment modified the relative weight of the small intestine (table 3), this organ has a statistical correlation with immune organs in birds (Martínez et al. 2021bMartínez, Y., Altamirano, E., Ortega, V., Paz, P. & Valdivié, M. 2021b. Effect of age on the immune and visceral organ weights and cecal traits in modern broilers. Animals, 11(3): 845-858, ISSN: 2076-2615. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11030845.), perhaps, this diet caused postprandial intestinal inflammatory processes, which increased the production of T and B lymphocytes and influenced the relative weight of these hematopoietic organs in young broiler chickens (Madej et al. 2024Madej, J.P., Graczyk, S., Bobrek, K., Bajzert, J. & Gaweł, A. 2024. Impact of early posthatch feeding on the immune system and selected hematological, biochemical, and hormonal parameters in broiler chickens. Poultry Science, 103(3): 103366, ISSN: 1525-3171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2023.103366.) as occurred in this study (table 3). Furthermore, the Murraya koenigii group decreased the relative weight of abdominal fat (table 3). The contribution of alkaloids due to the dietary inclusion of this natural pigment could reduce the incorporation of fat in this portion, similar to the results reported by Sharma et al. (2021)Sharma, D., Biswas, A., Deo, C. & Tyagi, P.K. 2021. Effect of dietary supplementation of curry leaves powder on growth performance, immunity, serum biochemical and carcass traits of broiler chickens. Indian Journal of Poultry Science, 8: 80-89, ISSN: 0974-8180. http://dx.doi.org/10.5958/0974-8180.2021.00009.X. .
The proposed additives in this study (higher emphasis on Bixa orellana) decreased the relative weight of the cecum (table 3), intestine portion that is responsible for intestinal health, the fermentation of nutrients and modulation of the intestinal microbiota (Yadav and Jha 2019Yadav, S. & Jha, R. 2019. Strategies to modulate the intestinal microbiota and their effects on nutrient utilization, performance, and health of poultry. Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology, 10: 1-11, ISSN: 2049-1891. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40104-018-0310-9.). Some studies have found that some natural products have a more obvious effect on the small intestine than on the cecum (Liu et al. 2021Liu, W., Rouzmehr, F., Wang, X. & Seidavi, A. 2021. Green tea dietary supplementation in broiler chickens: Effect on the development of chicken intestine. Food Science & Nutrition, 9(3): 1530-1541, ISSN: 2048-7177. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.2126.). Is worth noting that the results of the effect of ingredients rich in secondary metabolites on this organ are not conclusive, because it depends on the concentration and type of secondary metabolites, intestinal health, diet, age, and experimental conditions. Vase-Khavari et al. (2019)Vase-Khavari, K., Mortezavi, S.H., Rasouli, B., Khusro, A., Salem, A.Z. & Seidavi, A. 2019. The effect of three tropical medicinal plants and superzist probiotic on growth performance, carcass characteristics, blood constitutes, immune response, and gut microflora of broiler. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 51: 33-42, ISSN: 1573-7438. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-018-1656-x. reported that using 0.5 % of the powder of Rhus coriaria, Heracleum persicum and Mentha piperita increased the relative weight of the cecum. However, Liu et al. (2021)Liu, W., Rouzmehr, F., Wang, X. & Seidavi, A. 2021. Green tea dietary supplementation in broiler chickens: Effect on the development of chicken intestine. Food Science & Nutrition, 9(3): 1530-1541, ISSN: 2048-7177. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.2126. found no change in the relative weight of the cecum when they used up to 1 % of Camellia sinensis powder, apparently a decrease in cecal content in broilers because of these dietary compounds on the microflora influenced the results of this study (table 3). Other studies found that the use of natural products with antimicrobial properties decreased cecal content and, in turn, the load of enterobacteria such as Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter (Almuhayawi et al. 2023Almuhayawi, M.S., Alruhaili, M.H., Gattan, H.S., Alharbi, M.T., Nagshabandi, M.K., Almehayawi, M.S. & Alagawany, M. 2023. Evaluation of antimicrobial effect of olive leaves powder and its role in improving the broiler productivity, carcass traits, blood metabolites, and caecal microbiota. Poultry Science, 102(11): 103054, ISSN: 1525-3171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2023.103054.).
The effect of natural and synthetic pigments on cecal traits of young broilers is shown in table 4. The diets with the pigments decreased cecal pH, with a higher emphasis in the group with Bixa orellana which provoked a reduction (P<0.05) of total coliforms, Enterobacteriaceae and E. coli in relation to the control diet and the other groups of pigments. Likewise, cecal Salmonella spp. of broilers fed with the proposed pigments was not found (table 4). On the other hand, the Murraya koenigii group increased (P<0.05) the population of lactic acid bacteria and the canthaxanthin group decreased (P<0.05) the quantification of cecal yeasts compared to the control diet. Also, the experimental diets did not change (P>0.05) the population of cecal fungus (table 4).
Items (Log CFU/g) | Experimental treatments | SEM± | P-value | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control | Bixa orellana | Murraya koenigii | Canthaxanthin | |||
pH | 6.79a | 5.99c | 6.17b | 6.22b | 0.159 | 0.034 |
Total coliforms | 6.14c | 6.00d | 6.63a | 6.36b | 0.333 | 0.050 |
Enterobacteriaceae | 6.21b | 6.05c | 6.49a | 6.24b | 0.108 | 0.008 |
E. coli | 6.14c | 6.04d | 6.45a | 6.33b | 0.127 | 0.043 |
Salmonella spp. | Presence | Absence | Absence | Absence | ||
Total LAB | 6.64b | 6.81ab | 8.56a | 8.43ab | 0.449 | 0.044 |
Yeast | 2.84a | 2.49ab | 2.54ab | 2.26b | 0.149 | 0.016 |
Fungus | 3.02 | 3.49 | 3.10 | 3.62 | 0.489 | 0.786 |
a,b,c,dMeans within the same row with different superscript differ significantly (P<0.05). LAB: Lactic acid bacteria
It is known that the bactericidal or bacteriostatic effect of natural and synthetic products used in the poultry industry has a direct impact on intestinal health and productive response of the host (Arena et al. 2020Arena, J.S., Merlo, C., Defagó, M.T. & Zygadlo, J.A. 2020. Insecticidal and antibacterial effects of some essential oils against the poultry pest Alphitobius diaperinus and its associated microorganisms. Journal of Pesticide Science, 93: 403-414, ISSN: 1349-0923. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10340-019-01141-5.). A decrease in intestinal pH could be due to the product used having an acidic pH, the growth of cecal LAB or a decrease in the pathogenic bacterial population, since the final product of bacterial fermentation is volatile fatty acids that emit protons and reduce the pH (Scicutella et al. 2021Scicutella, F., Mannelli, F., Daghio, M., Viti, C. & Buccioni, A. 2021. Polyphenols and organic acids as alternatives to antimicrobials in poultry rearing: a review. Antibiotics, 10(8): 1010, ISSN: 2079-6382. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics10081010.). Thus, Al-Tarazi and Alshawabkeh (2003)Al‐Tarazi, Y.H. & Alshawabkeh, K. 2003. Effect of dietary formic and propionic acids on Salmonella pullorum shedding and mortality in layer chicks after experimental infection. Journal of Veterinary Medicine, 50: 112-117, ISSN: 2314-6966. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-0450.2003.00644.x. found a decrease in cecal pH when including a phytobiotic pigment on broiler diets. In this sense, Nathan et al. (2019)Nathan, V.K., Rani, M.E., Rathinasamy, G. & Narayanan Dhiraviam, K. 2019. Antioxidant and antimicrobial potential of natural colouring pigment derived from Bixa orellana L. Seed Aril. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, India Section B: Biological Sciences, 89: 137-143, ISSN: 2250-1746. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40011-017-0927-z. demonstrated that Bixa orellana has an important bactericidal effect against opportunistic bacteria such as Salmonella spp. and E. coli. As it is known, this is the first study that demonstrates the bactericidal effect of Bixa orellana in broilers, since this experimental group notably reduced total coliforms, Enterobacteriaceae, E. coli and Salmonella spp. in the cecum, although without changes in the population of lactic acid bacteria.
On the other hand, Murraya koenigii has a high concentration of carbazole alkaloids (mainly mahanimbine, murrayanol and mahanine), which in small concentrations have a microbial effect against Staphylococcus epidermidis (Handral et al. 2012Handral, H.K., Pandith, A. & Shruthi, S.D. 2012. A review on Murraya koenigii: multipotential medicinal plant. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research, 5: 5-14, ISSN: 2455-3891. https://pharmainfo.in/jpsr/Documents/Volumes/vol11issue07/jpsr11071935.pdf.). Interestingly, the use of 1 % Murraya koenigii on broiler diets decreased the cecal pH due to the increase in the population of LAB in this intestinal portion, however, this experimental group exacerbated the growth of total coliforms, Enterobacteriaceae and E. coli. Apparently, excess of these secondary metabolites (alkaloids) caused intestinal disorders, confirmed by the decrease in productive efficiency, without cecal competitive exclusion, which affects the selective growth of some pathogenic and beneficial bacteria (table 4). Also, no studies were found that referred to the in vitro and in vivo bactericidal effect of Murraya koenigii against common enterobacteria such as E. coli and Salmonella spp. However, further research is necessary to confirm this hypothesis.
Other findings of the study are that the synthetic pigment (canthaxanthin) decreased the cecal pH and the population of cecal yeasts and increased the population of total coliforms and E. coli compared to the control group (table 4). Therefore, the greater population of cecal pathogenic bacteria could influence the decrease in the response of young birds in this experimental treatment (table 2). Furthermore, the lower cecal yeast population could provoke microbial dysbiosis, since the yeast cell wall serves as a nutritive substance for cecal LAB (Hernández-Ramírez et al. 2021Hernández-Ramírez, J.O., Merino-Guzmán, R., Téllez-Isaías, G., Vázquez-Durán, A. & Méndez-Albores, A. 2021. Mitigation of AFB1-related toxic damage to the intestinal epithelium in broiler chickens consumed a yeast cell wall fraction. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 8: 677965, ISSN: 2297-1769. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.677965.), which stimulates the immune response when challenged by opportunistic Enterobacteriaceae (Bonato et al. 2020Bonato, M., Borges, L.L., Ingberman, M., Fávaro, C., Mesa, D., Caron, L.F. & Beirão, B.C. 2020. Effects of yeast cell wall on immunity, microbiota, and intestinal integrity of Salmonella-infected broilers. Journal of Applied Poultry Research, 29: 545-558, ISSN: 1537-0437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.japr.2020.03.002.). This research demonstrates that the synthetic pigment (canthaxanthin) has no antimicrobial effect on common cecal Enterobacteriaceae in young broiler chickens.
Conclusions
⌅Dietary supplementation with 1 % Bixa orellana as a natural pigment had a growth-promoting effect and a marked antimicrobial effect in vivo in young broiler chickens, without affecting the relative weight of digestive, visceral, and immune organs.